Major Problems and Countermeasures for the Establishment of Ecological Compensation Systems for National Key Ecological Function Areas

At the end of the 1990s China started to construct an ecological compensation system for national key ecological function areas. An eco-compensation system focusing on the “Transfer Payment of National Key Ecological Function Areas” has been established. The current eco-compensation system has played a positive role in improving the ecological environment of national key ecological function areas; but the ecological effect is weakening due to existing problems in the eco-compensation system such as unreasonable calculation of compensation standards, poor expression of rights and interests of stakeholders, simple sources of capital and modes of compensation. For better development, the eco-compensation system should be improved by (i) adhering to the combination of vertical compensation (oriented) and horizontal compensation (auxiliary) on the whole and establishing a transfer payment system of eco-compensation at national scale; (ii) defining the compensation standard according to ecological protection costs, development opportunity costs and ecological service values and adding indicators that reflect economic green transformation to evaluate compensation effects; (iii) gradually building a utilization system of eco-compensation funds in which multi-stakeholders participate and establishing a green development-oriented system to evaluate the performance of local governments; and (iv) cultivating a new business pattern where ecological services are the product, to grow the ecological service industry.     

Payments for Ecosystem Services: Market Mechanism or Diversified Modes?

Payment for ecosystem services is a concept of environmental protection and method of environmental management that has “purchasing conservation” as a major feature and has grown around the world since the 1990s. It is stressed by the school of environmental economics that as a voluntary mechanism of exchange between ecological service providers and demanders, payments for ecosystem services can help to increase inputs and improve efficiency. Ecological economics holds that the ecological system and the complexity of the policy environment restrict the functional space of market mechanisms. The negative influence of the objective of giving priority to efficiency on environmental protection and social fairness cannot be neglected; therefore, the exchange mechanism is just one type of eco-compensation models. Here, we posit that payments for ecosystem services is a good tool for environmental protection and increases inputs and efficiency. Although payment for ecosystem services is confronted with challenges in application, it is playing an increasingly important role in the field of ecological services with a relatively high degree of commodification. Payments for ecosystem services can also increase the cost effectiveness of publicly managed environmental projects with the cooperation of other policy tools.     

区际农业生态补偿:区域划分与补偿标准核算——基于虚拟耕地流动视角的考察

从虚拟耕地流动的视角构建区际农业生态补偿框架,并在此框架下开展区际农业生态补偿支付/受偿区域划分和补偿标准测算的研究。结果表明：① 区际农业生态补偿的基本原理是：利用虚拟耕地净流量（输入量与输出量的差额）指标划分区际农业生态补偿的支付/受偿区域。对于净流量为负的分室,通过虚拟耕地流动占用了其他区域的耕地资源,应该支付相应的生态补偿。对于净流量为正的分室,通过虚拟耕地流动被其他区域占用了耕地资源,应得到生态补偿。区际农业生态补偿额度应包含对农业生态环境保护和改善的投资成本以及占用农业资源使其牺牲的发展机会成本等方面,并由管理平台统一收缴和分发。② 2004年以后虚拟耕地流动格局基本上保持稳定,只有个别省市（甘肃和云南）由净流入转变为净流出,在空间上表现为“北耕南流”的格局。③ 受偿区域（15个省市）主要分布在东北地区、华北地区和西北地区;支付区域（16个省市）主要分布在东部沿海地区和西南地区。④ 研究期内年均总受偿额度为1472.58亿元,处于高受偿省份（黑龙江、吉林、内蒙古、河南）年均受偿额度都在150亿元以上。研究期内年均总支付额度为543.10亿元,其中,处于高支付区域的省份（浙江、广东、北京、福建）年均支付额度都在40亿元以上。     

生态补偿机制中若干关键科学问题——以甘南藏族自治州草地生态系统为例

以甘南州草地生态系统水源涵养服务为例,构建以机会成本、交易成本和实施成本为参数的参与成本模型确定生态补偿标准。基于生态补偿资金效率的考虑,构建以土地所有者提供的生态系统服务、土地所有者的参与成本和生态系统服务受损风险为参数的空间选择模型,以乡镇为研究单元,对生态补偿区域进行选择,采用聚类分析将全州划为5大等级补偿区:优先补偿区、次级优先补偿区、次级补偿区、临界补偿区和潜在补偿区或可能补偿区,并对各类补偿区的特征进行了分析。构建生态补偿额基尼系数与生态补偿资金效率评价模型,分别评价了补偿额在受偿群体和补偿区域中分配的公平性、合理性与不同等级补偿区的补偿效率。结果表明:①以草地生态系统服务功能的价值(4776.4元/hm²·a)和机会成本(621.3元/m²·a)作为补偿标准的上下限,结合参与成本确定甘南州草地生态系统补偿标准为1999.8元/hm²·a;②草地生态系统的补偿优先度与生态重要性、生态脆弱性呈现出吻合趋同的状态,即草地生态系统优先补偿区既是高效补偿区,又是重要生态区和生态脆弱区;③受偿者(草地生态系统水源涵养服务供给者)得到的补偿额有明显不均衡状态,而在补偿区域(草地生态系统)上的分配却处于绝对平均范围内;④草地生态系统补偿区的优先等级次序与补偿效率吻合,即草地生态系统的优先补偿区的补偿效率最高,每元获取的草地生态系统水源涵养服务为38.18,是临界补偿区的14.68倍;次级优先补偿区的效率仅次于优先补偿区,每元补偿的生态系统服务为21.02。     

国家重点生态功能区生态系统服务时空格局及其变化特征

基于遥感数据及地理信息系统平台,利用生态模型,定量分析中国国家重点生态功能区在实施转移支付前（2000~2010年）、后（2010~2015年）生态系统宏观格局及关键生态系统服务的时空分布格局及其变化特征。研究结果表明：在气候变化与转移支付政策的共同影响下,中国国家重点生态功能区生态系统宏观结构总体好转,荒漠化得到有效控制,水体与湿地得到有效恢复,但森林及草地生态系统发生退化,农田与聚落生态系统面积进一步扩大;水土流失及土壤风蚀得到有效遏制,水源涵养及土壤保持服务得到大幅提升,但防风固沙服务整体有所下降,同时人类活动对生物多样性维护功能的威胁程度基本持衡。     

Game strategies in government-led eco-compensation in the Xin’an River Basin from the perspective of the politics of scale

China's policy on ecological compensation (eco-compensation) in watershed eco-systems is of economic,social and environmental significance for China's ecological gov-ernance and protection of natural areas.It involves balancing the interests of regional stakeholders,coordinating the development of regional environments and establishing effec-tive cooperation models,making it a classic topic for geographical research.This study in-troduces the concept of institutional "stickiness" to the theory of politics of scale to analyze the features and mechanisms of the game behavior of government entities in the process of im-plementing watershed eco-compensation in the Xin'an River Basin.Our results show the following:government entities at various levels,including the central,provincial and municipal governments,experienced the three stages of game strategy of competition,cooperation and"coopetition";building a government community of shared interests can promote watershed eco-compensation,and "appropriate intervention" by the central govemment is key to achieving inter-provincial watershed eco-compensation;there was clear institutional stickiness during the transition from a "vertical" model of watershed eco-compensation to a "vertical-horizontal"model,with government entities using policy innovations and social participation to limit and reduce stickiness so as to reshape the watershed eco-compensation system;scalar jumping is the core mechanism that promoted eco-compensation in the study basin,and government entities shaped the discourse on watershed eco-compensation by redistributing powers and capital and creating informal constraints,which promoted the transformation of eco-compensation from a "strong state-weak society" structural model,to a "strong state-strong society" model in the Xin'an River Basin.These results can provide theoretical support for the construction of inter-regional watershed eco-compensation mechanisms,pro-vide a scientific basis for the rational evaluation and guidance of watershed eco-compensation practices,and promote the coordinated and sustainable socioeconomic development of watersheds.     

Factors Affecting the Willingness of Farmers to Accept Eco-compensation in the Qianxi Chestnut Agroforestry System,Hebei

Ecological compensation plays an important role in promoting ecological protection. Identifying factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation has become a focus of ecological economics. The Qianxi traditional chestnut agricultural heritage system is a typical agroforestry system in China and adapts the local environment well. However, local farmers concentrate on chestnut monocultures, driven by short-term profits. The local ecological environment is very fragile. We surveyed 100 local rural households. Based on face-to-face interviews and questionnaires and model assessment, we analyzed factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation in the Qianxi chestnut agroforestry system of Hebei. We found that many factors influence farmer willingness to accept, including education level, household income, environmental awareness, environmental protection practices and knowledge of ecological compensation. This research provides helps clarify the mechanism of farmer participation in eco-compensation and provides a basis for further development of compensation standards that benefit the local environment.     

尺度政治视角下的新安江流域生态补偿政府主体博弈

流域生态补偿是中国跨区域生态治理和自然区域保护的一项重要经济、社会、环境政策,涉及区域利益主体权益差异与协调、区域生态协同发展和合作模式构建等方面,是一个典型的地理学研究命题。本文将制度粘性引入到尺度政治理论中,剖析新安江流域生态补偿政府主体的博弈行为,探究不同政府主体的博弈特征和博弈机制。结果表明:中央政府、省级政府、市级政府等不同层级政府主体经历了竞争博弈、合作博弈和竞合博弈3个阶段,构建政府利益共同体能够推进流域生态补偿建设,中央政府的“适度介入”是开展跨省流域生态补偿的关键;流域生态补偿制度从“垂直”模式向“垂直—水平”模式的变迁过程中存在明显的制度粘性,政府主体利用政策革新和社会参与等制度约束稀释制度粘性,重塑流域生态补偿制度;尺度转换是推动新安江流域生态补偿的核心机制,政府主体通过重新分配权力和资本、嵌入非正式约束塑造流域生态补偿话语体系,推动新安江流域生态补偿由“强国家—弱社会”向“强国家—强社会”结构模式的转变。研究结果能够为构建跨区域流域生态补偿机制提供理论支撑,为合理评价和指导流域生态补偿实践、促进流域经济社会协调可持续发展提供科学依据。     

新疆重点生态功能区生态补偿的空间选择研究

基于生态补偿空间选择的基本原理,从区域范畴、资金分配、生态价值3个方面,解析了新疆重点生态功能区的基本特征,并利用“效益成本比瞄准”法、“生态补偿优先等级”法定量分析新疆生态补偿优先等级。结果表明:“生态补偿优先等级”中,新疆生态补偿优先等级与转移支付资金分配基本一致,因忽略环境因素,使得优先补偿等级未获得充分的生态转移支付资金;“效益成本比瞄准”法中,因忽略民生因素和环境因素,新疆生态补偿优先等级与转移支付资金呈现不对等关系,但这一方法,能更好地解读后期生态补偿的区域选择。在分配转移支付资金时,应综合环境、民生因素,均衡生态补偿优先等级与转移支付资金,提高转移支付资金的使用效率,推进新疆生态环境持续优化。     

生态补偿效益、标准——国际经验及对我国的启示

随着环境压力的不断增大,生态补偿作为解决环境问题的创新手段日益受到重视,补偿效益是生态补偿的核心。通过综合分析近年来国内外生态补偿研究的相关文献,发现优化选择补偿区域和合理的补偿标准是提高补偿效益的关键,机会成本是应用较广的确定生态补偿标准的方法,不同区域提供的生态服务以及损失的机会成本有差异。我国对区域差异关注较少,补偿标准未能反映农户的真实成本,存在补偿不足或对不需补偿就能提供生态服务的区域实施补偿等问题,补偿资金利用效益较低。国际上比较注重生态补偿的区域差异,在生态补偿效益、促进环境保护积极性等方面效果较好。针对我国目前生态补偿中存在的问题,借鉴国际经验,提出了确定生态补偿标准的理论框架。     

生态补偿研究进展

在中国经济迅速发展的同时,资源环境消耗不断加剧,生态环境问题日益突出,生态补偿成为改善环境的重要途径。采用文献回顾法、归纳法对国内外生态补偿的定义和理论依据、补偿原则、补偿主体客体、补偿途径、补偿标准等方面进行了总结分析,得出生态补偿的理论研究重心由宏观讨论转向微观研究,生态补偿标准测算侧重外部效益的定量核算,生态补偿途径由政府主导向市场化转变。并提出中国可借鉴的方面,即对生态补偿的概念进行科学界定,加强对征收标准的研究,建立多种资金收集渠道并有效配置资金,建立完善的生态补偿相关法律制度。同时从生态补偿标准、资金配置、补偿项目等方面做出展望。     

Comparison on Eco-compensation between the Domestic and International Studies

Because it offers an effective means to alleviate current ecological problems and a way to coordinate sustainable economic and social development with protection of the environment, eco-compensation has become a subject of interest to scholars and governments all over the world. A great many studies have been carried out and eco-compensation schemes have been put into practice; there have been many fruitful results. Based on a review of related research and practices, this paper attempts first to discuss domestic and international eco-compensation research and practices in terms of the meaning of eco-compensation and its components (stakeholders, compensation criteria, compensation modes, compensation approaches, compensation funds, and compensation effects). Next, taking into consideration the above discussion, the paper looks at the differences between Chinese and international eco-compensation measures. Finally, existing problems with eco-compensation research and practices in China are summarized and some suggestions are put forward.     

碳中和目标下中国地区碳生态安全与生态补偿研究

碳中和目标不仅是气候治理的中国承诺,也是实现经济高质量增长的内生需求。基于生态足迹、投入产出的方法,利用能源消耗、土地利用及投入产出的相关数据,对碳中和目标下地区生态安全与生态补偿展开研究,结论如下：① 地区生态安全及协调水平持续下降,二者在区域上呈现趋同特征。2000—2017年间,全国整体ESI指数从1.08上升至3.06,ECI指数由1.413下降至1.261,24个省生态安全与协调发展等级出现不同程度下降。生态安全与协调发展表现出明显的趋同规律,安全等级低（或高）的地区对应协调水平也低（或高）。② 全国生态“欠账”增长迅速,地区补偿呈现东“补”西“偿”中“平衡”的结构特征。基于碳中和的近期实施与远期目标构建了“净零排放”与“净零贡献”两种生态补偿方案。在“净零排放”方案下,全国需支付的生态补偿从1334.57亿美元增长至83819.61亿美元,生态赤字增长迅速;该方案下,三大沿海经济区长期为补偿支付地区,但其支付的全国占比在逐渐下降;与之相对应黄河及长江中游地区补偿支付比例迅速上升。净零贡献补偿方案下,全国范围补偿会计平衡,地区补偿结构表明东部为补偿区,西部为受偿区,中部基本平衡。     

Eco-compensation effects of the wetland recovery in Dongting Lake area

Eco-compensation is an environmental economic instrument for internalization of external cost. Returning farmland to lake is one of the important parts of restoring wetland ecosystem function in the Yangtze River Valley of China. Whether the project of lake recovery can be successful depends on the compensation to the farmers who have lost their original benefits and contributed to the wetland ecosystem recovery by returning farmland to lake. Aiming at the wetland recovery of the Dongting Lake, the practical implementation of programs of the lake recovery and flood control in this area has been challenged by the heavy task of population resettlement, so it is an ideal area for case studies to reach the academic objectives proposed as the above. Based on field survey and experimentation, this research evaluated the benefit losses of the resettled farmers and the increased values of ecosystem service functions caused by wetland recovery, and furthermore, the value of eco-compensation for relocated farmers was calculated by considering the combination of the farmers’ compensation appeal. The value of eco-compensation for relocated farmers in the Dongting Lake area was 6084.5 yuan per household by synthetic analysis of the effects on wetland ecosystem restoration. Moreover, this article took Dongting Lake area as a case to study and explore the basic issues of the eco-compensation by returning farmland to lake, that was who should pay, who should be paid, how much the payment was and what the payment means was, which sought the mechanisms of wetland restoration eco-compensation and prompted the people’s enthusiasms for ecological restoration.     

内蒙古农牧交错带生态补偿效应分析

中国的生态补偿实施主要通过制度安排进行。在内蒙古农牧交错带,生态补偿主要通过两种模式进行,即对农牧户放弃土地使用和生产结构调整给予补偿。基于详尽的野外调查,本研究对农牧户经济受偿意愿进行了对比分析,并对两种生态补偿模式的效应进行了详细评价。结果表明,放弃土地使用的生态补偿模式缺乏创造就业机会的机制,因此不具有可持续性。与此相反,调整生产结构的补偿方式不但使农户从事农牧业的规模有了明显下降,而且有助于创造更多的就业机会。虽然这种模式会使农户面临很大的市场风险,但是它为解决区域生态系统恢复和社会经济发展之间的矛盾提供了一种有效方法。     

洞庭湖区湿地恢复的生态补偿效应评估

洞庭湖是我国最大的淡水湖泊湿地景观生态系统之一,湿地资源丰富。但由于人类不同历史时期的围垦和不合理的开发利用,导致湖泊湿地生态系统严重退化,湿地面积大为减少。随着洞庭湖区按照国家“退田还湖,移民建镇”的整体战略部署,以及“4350”工程的实施,湖泊面积、湿地资源将会得以恢复。然而,退田还湖中移民农户为保护与恢复湿地,牺牲了部分利益,成为受损方。洞庭湖区湖泊湿地的退田还湖工程是恢复长江生态功能系统工程中一个很重要的子系统,工程能否顺利实施的关键在于退田还湖农民在其中损失的利益能否得到补偿,及其为生态恢复所作的贡献能否得到承认。作者在实地调查和试验的基础上,依据环境经济学原理和方法,对洞庭湖湿地恢复引起的湖区农户收益减少和一系列的湿地生态服务功能的恢复表现,进行了价值评估,由此得出湿地恢复应对湖区移民农户的生态补偿值。以湿地恢复的生态补偿评估为基础,探讨了评估方法与建立补偿机制重要性,以期实现“以人为本”的战略目标,也为顺利进行退田还湖的后期工作,广泛调动广大群众生态建设的积极性,为合理建立生态补偿机制提供参考。     

羌塘草原野生动物保护的生态补偿成本研究(英文)

生态保护的成本是生态补偿标准的核心组成部分,一般由直接成本、机会成本和发展成本构成。本文以羌塘自然保护区涉及的那曲地区为例,采用恢复成本法和机会成本法对牧民参与野生动物保护的直接成本和机会成本进行了核算。研究过程中,借用中国草地承载力评估中的标准羊单位,把草地生态系统、草食性野生动物和价值评估有机地联系起来,为草原地区野生动物保护的生态补偿提供了一个有效的评估工具。评估结果表明,那曲地区牧民参与野生动物保护的成本是每年5.69亿元,其中直接成本是1.19亿元,机会成本是4.5亿元,机会成本占总成本的79%。机会成本是由于草食性野生动物的啃食与踩踏导致草场必须禁牧致使牧民放弃的经济收入。显然,羌塘自然保护区草食性野生动物对草场的损害构成了生态补偿的主体。如果按照那曲地区中度以上退化草地的面积计算,则牧民保护野生动物的单位面积成本是每年57元,按照那曲地区人口计算,参与野生动物保护的人均成本是每年1482元。这一结果并不等于生态补偿标准,但可以作为补偿标准的低限。     

Zoning grassland protection area using remote sensing and cellular automata modeling—A case study in Xilingol steppe grassland in northern China

Grassland degradation has become a serious environmental problem in China due to climate variability and human disturbances in the arid and semi-arid areas. Establishing grassland protection areas (GPAs) is regarded as an effective measure to protect grassland. This paper presents a new method to support the local government's effort in zoning of GPAs. It integrates a cellular automata (CA) model with geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing. The proposed method includes two major steps: 1. to extract “seed points” of candidate GPAs using remote sensing techniques and GIS; 2. to simulate the zoning of GPAs using a CA model. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated using a case study in Xilingol steppe grassland in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. The results show that the integrated approach can rapidly find candidate GPAs that satisfy the zoning requirement. It has demonstrated that the proposed method of grassland protection zoning provides valuable decision support tools for government and planning agencies.     

Zoning grassland protection area using remote sensing and cellular automata modeling—A case study in Xilingol steppe grassland in northern China

Grassland degradation has become a serious environmental problem in China due to climate variability and human disturbances in the arid and semi-arid areas. Establishing grassland protection areas (GPAs) is regarded as an effective measure to protect grassland. This paper presents a new method to support the local government's effort in zoning of GPAs. It integrates a cellular automata (CA) model with geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing. The proposed method includes two major steps: 1. to extract “seed points” of candidate GPAs using remote sensing techniques and GIS; 2. to simulate the zoning of GPAs using a CA model. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated using a case study in Xilingol steppe grassland in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. The results show that the integrated approach can rapidly find candidate GPAs that satisfy the zoning requirement. It has demonstrated that the proposed method of grassland protection zoning provides valuable decision support tools for government and planning agencies.     

基于PRA方法的农户对干旱区草原生态保护政策的认知分析

自2000年以来,中国草原牧区实施的一系列草原建设和保护工程引起了草地利用方式和农牧民传统生产模式的改变。农牧户作为生产经营活动的直接参与者和草原生态保护政策的实施主体,其认知态度与行为选择将直接影响政策实施效果,对草原生态环境有着直接影响。以黑河上游肃南县干旱区草原为例,选取了自由放牧区、半农半牧区和舍饲养殖区三个不同类型牧区,采用参与式农户评估方法（PRA）,分析了农牧民对草原生态保护政策的认知情况和实施效果及其在当前政策背景下倾向性的草原放牧措施。结果表明：（1）相对宽松的草地资源约束使自由放牧区内农牧民的草原保护政策认知水平较高,58.1%的农牧户对季节性休牧和补贴数额有较高的认同度,但存在超载放牧现象。（2）半农半牧区和舍饲养殖区农牧民对草原保护政策的认知水平偏低,同时,舍饲养殖导致的生产成本上升使该趋势进一步加剧,71.7%的农牧户响应禁牧政策的积极性不高且认为禁牧补贴数额不合理。建议从增加非农就业机会、完善农村金融服务体系、细化草原补奖标准和调整草地资源约束的角度因地制宜采取配套措施,实现保护生态和农牧民增收双目标。