1976年唐山大地震CPT液化数据库检验

1976年唐山大地震引发了范围广、灾害重的液化震害。铁道部科学研究院等单位于1977、1978年对液化场地进行了单桥静力触探测试。但单桥静力触探在数据指标方面存在缺陷,与国际标准不接轨。中国地震局工程力学研究所与东南大学等单位于2007年对上述唐山地区部分测点再次进行了孔压静力触探（CPTU）测试。本文通过对比2次静力触探数据,利用Robertson土质分类图,进行新孔压静力触探数据土类分层检验,将土类检验结果与单桥静力触探测试时钻孔柱状图进行对比,发现大部分测点土层土类均能较好对应,现场测试力学指标沿深度变化趋势较相符,仅剔除了错误点T2、T3。对所有测点选定液化层,分别建立基于单桥静力触探测试比贯入阻力p_s和基于孔压静力触探测试锥尖阻力q_c的液化数据库。利用基于静力触探测试（CPT）的我国规范液化判别方法检验了2个数据库,发现对单桥静力触探测试的数据库液化判别效果好,而对孔压静力触探测试的数据库液化判别效果较差,说明经过30年的时间,土层液化可能已发生较大改变。因此,基于孔压静力触探测试的液化数据库可靠性较低,基于该数据库对液化判别方法进行改进意义较小。     

饱和黄土场地原位试验及液化势评价

目前,主要依靠室内动力试验对黄土液化势进行评价。由于黄土特殊的结构性,室内试验对其饱和的过程较为复杂,且与实际场地饱和黄土差异明显,导致室内黄土液化试验结果并不能代表现场饱和黄土的抗液化强度。本文选取兰州市西固区寺儿沟村某饱和黄土场地进行钻孔测试,现场实施了标准贯入试验、静力触探试验以及剪切波速测试。应用Robertson的土类指数分类图对该场地不同含水率黄土的土类进行了界定,确定了饱和黄土属于类砂土,有液化势。应用NCEER推荐方法,计算了3组原位试验数据的饱和黄土循环抗力比（CRR）,通过与1976年唐山地震和1999年集集地震液化土CRR对比,得出了饱和黄土抗液化强度很低的结论。     

Spatial variability of liquefaction potential in regional mapping using CPT and SPT data

Cone penetration test (CPT) and standard penetration test (SPT) are widely used for the site specific evaluation of liquefaction potential and are getting increased use in the regional mapping of liquefaction hazard. This paper compares CPT and SPT-based liquefaction potential characterizations of regional geologic units using the liquefaction potential index (LPI) across the East Bay of the San Francisco Bay, California, USA and examines the statistical and spatial variability of LPI across and within geologic units. Overall, CPT-based LPI characterizations result in higher hazard than those derived from the SPT. This bias may result from either mis-classifications of soil type in the CPT or a bias in the CPT simplified procedure for liquefaction potential. Regional mapping based on cumulative distribution of LPI values show different results depending on which dataset is used. For both SPT and CPT-based characterizations, the geologic units in the area have broad LPI distributions that overlap between units and are not distinct from the population as a whole. Regional liquefaction classifications should therefore give a distribution, rather than a single hazard rating that does not provide for variability within the area. The CPT-based LPI values have a higher degree of spatial correlation and a lower variance over a greater distance than those estimated from SPTs. As a result, geostatistical interpolation can provide a detailed map of LPI when densely sampled CPT data are available. The statistical distribution of LPI within specific geologic units and interpolated maps of LPI can be used to understand the spatial variability of liquefaction potential.     

CPT-based analysis of liquefaction and re-liquefaction following the Canterbury earthquake sequence

The Canterbury region experienced widespread damage due to liquefaction induced by seismic shaking during the 4 September 2010 earthquake and the large aftershocks that followed, notably those that occurred on 22 February, 13 June and 23 December 2011. Following the 2010 earthquake, the Earthquake Commission directed a thorough investigation of the ground profile in Christchurch, and to date, more than 7500 cone penetration tests (CPT) have been performed in the region. This paper presents the results of analyses which use a subset of the geotechnical database to evaluate the liquefaction process as well as the re-liquefaction that occurred following some of the major events in Christchurch. First, the applicability of existing CPT-based methods for evaluating liquefaction potential of Christchurch soils was investigated using three methods currently available. Next, the results of liquefaction potential evaluation were compared with the severity of observed damage, categorised in terms of the land damage grade developed from Tonkin & Taylor property inspections as well as from observed severity of liquefaction from aerial photography. For this purpose, the Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) was used to represent the damage potential at each site. In addition, a comparison of the CPT-based strength profiles obtained before each of the major aftershocks was performed. The results suggest that the analysis of spatial and temporal variations of strength profiles gives a clear indication of the resulting liquefaction and re-liquefaction observed in Christchurch. The comparison of a limited number of CPT strength profiles before and after the earthquakes seems to indicate that no noticeable strengthening has occurred in Christchurch, making the area vulnerable to liquefaction induced land damage in future large-scale earthquakes.     

多功能参数静力触探在地震液化判别方法中的应用进展研究

地震液化是引起地基失稳和上部结构损害的直接原因之一,而液化震害预防的第一步就是对工程场地进行液化预测和判别。静力触探(CPT)作为最主要的原位测试技术,因其具有快速、低廉、高效等优点,被广泛用于液化判别。根据国内外近年来CPT技术的发展,对不同形式的CPT[孔压静力触探技术(CPTU)技术,电阻率孔压静力触探(RCPTU)技术、地震波孔压静力触探技术(SCPTU)技术等]在地震液化评价中的应用进行系统的论述。特别介绍一种基于状态参数进行液化判别的方法,另外还简要介绍基于概率统计分析法。比较和梳理各种液化判别方法的差异性,最后,在已有研究成果的基础上分析现有CPT液化判别法存在的问题与不足。分析结果表明:状态参数法能够同时考虑围压应力和孔隙比的影响,有效地将室内试验与现场试验联系起来;SCPTU、RCPTU液化判别框架还需进一步拓展与完善;概率统计分析法需结合相应软件使其更具适用性。     

唐山地区可液化场地标准CPT指标及其与剪切波速的关系

无论从以往大地震的经历还是未来潜在地震危险的角度,唐山地区都是一个研究液化的良好的实验场,对其可液化场地获取符合国际标准的、代表目前国际上液化势衡量指标发展趋势的CPT测试结果,对积累液化研究基础数据、研究液化前后场地的抗液化性能变化以及发展新的液化预测方法应是有意义的工作。本文采用国际标准的CPT技术对唐山地区可液化场地进行实地勘察测试,得到了锥尖阻力和侧壁摩阻力这两项新指标,提出了可液化场地剪切波速构造,同时利用系统的优势,得到了可液化场地锥尖阻力与剪切波速间的关系式,分析了可液化场地CPT剖面和剪切波速特征。几个方面的分析表明,给出的结果具有可靠性。     

CPT site characterization for seismic hazards in the New Madrid seismic zone

A series of cone penetration tests (CPTs) were conducted in the vicinity of the New Madrid seismic zone in central USA for quantifying seismic hazards, obtaining geotechnical soil properties, and conducting studies at liquefaction sites related to the 1811–1812 and prehistoric New Madrid earthquakes. The seismic piezocone provides four independent measurements for delineating the stratigraphy, liquefaction potential, and site amplification parameters. At the same location, two independent assessments of soil liquefaction susceptibility can be made using both the normalized tip resistance (q_c1N) and shear wave velocity (V_s1). In lieu of traditional deterministic approaches, the CPT data can be processed using probability curves to assess the level and likelihood of future liquefaction occurrence.     

Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes

Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating the liquefaction potential of saturated cohesionless soils during earthquakes are re-examined and revised relations for use in practice are recommended. The stress reduction factor (r_d), earthquake magnitude scaling factor for cyclic stress ratios (MSF), overburden correction factor for cyclic stress ratios (K_σ), and the overburden normalization factor for penetration resistances (C_N) are discussed and recently modified relations are presented. These modified relations are used in re-evaluations of the SPT and CPT case history databases. Based on these re-evaluations, revised SPT- and CPT-based liquefaction correlations are recommended for use in practice. In addition, shear wave velocity based procedures are briefly discussed.     

基于2011年新西兰地震的CPT液化特征研究

2011年2月22日,新西兰第二大城市克赖斯特彻市附近发生M_s6.3级地震,震中位于克赖斯特彻市西南10km处,震源深度为5km。地震造成了大量的人员伤亡和经济损失,重建费用估计高达40亿新西兰元,得到共识是砂土液化为震害主因。此次地震,液化震害极为严重,喷砂冒水范围广泛分布于城市内外,引起大量次生灾害,地震也为砂土液化特征研究,特别是检验和发展液化判别方法提供了大量宝贵的液化数据。本文收集整理震后132个勘察点的勘察资料,包括静力触探试验（以下简称"CPT"）数据、地表峰值加速度和地下水位等。通过对数据的研究,得到了地震液化场地加速度分布、地下水位分布和砂层埋深分布等特征。检验了我国现有的静力触探试验液化判别方法,结果表明:液化场地主要分布在PGA为0.5~0.65g附近,液化层5m以内居多,我国CPT液化判别方法对于10m以下判别存在明显的错误,同时此次地震还发现多个液化层位于20m以下,对于这个深度,国内CPT液化判别方法还未涉猎。     

Comparing liquefaction evaluation methods using penetration-VS relationships

Three methods that follow the general format of the Seed-Idriss simplified procedure for evaluating liquefaction resistance of soils are compared in this paper. They are compared by constructing relationships between penetration resistance and small-strain shear–wave velocity (V_S) implied from cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) curves for the three methods, and by plotting penetration-V_S data pairs. The penetration-V_S data pairs are from 43 Holocene-age sand layers in California, South Carolina, Canada, and Japan. It is shown that the V_S-based CRR curve is more conservative than CRR curves based on the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Cone Penetration Test (CPT), for the compiled Holocene data. This result agrees with the findings of a recent probability study where the SPT-, CPT-, and V_S-based CRR curves were characterized as curves with average probability of liquefaction of 31, 50, and 26%, respectively. New SPT- and CPT-based CRR equations are proposed that provide more consistent assessments of liquefaction potential for the Holocene sand layers considered.     

利用qc,D50评价砂土地震液化势研究

本文根据国内外地震液化调查资料，建立了利用双桥静力触探锥头阻力ｑｃ和平均粒径Ｄ５０判别地震液化势的半经验性方法。这种方法对评价地震液化势是颇为有效的。     

Magnitude scaling factors in liquefaction triggering procedures

A revised magnitude scaling factor (MSF) relationship for CPT-based and SPT-based liquefaction triggering analyses is presented in this paper. The revised MSF relationship incorporates functional dependency on the soil characteristics [represented by clean sand equivalent penetration resistances in the present form] as well as on earthquake magnitude. The revisions in MSF are based on the examination of cyclic testing results for a broad range of soil types and densities, analyses of strong ground motion records to develop relationships for the equivalent number of loading cycles for different soil properties, and the synthesis of those results into an MSF relationship suitable for implementation in practice. A separate study [2] showed that use of the revised MSF relationship in CPT-based and SPT-based liquefaction triggering procedures is well-supported by the case history databases. Other factors known to fundamentally influence the MSF are discussed.     

Assessment of liquefaction evaluation procedures and severity index frameworks at Christchurch strong motion stations

The objective of the study presented herein is to assess three commonly used CPT-based liquefaction evaluation procedures and three liquefaction severity index frameworks using data from the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence. Specifically, post-event field observations, ground motion recordings, and results from a recently completed extensive geotechnical site investigation programme at selected strong motion stations (SMSs) in the city of Christchurch and surrounding towns are used herein. Unlike similar studies that used data from free-field sites, accelerogram characteristics at the SMS locations can be used to assess the performance of liquefaction evaluation procedures prior to their use in the computation of surficial manifestation severity indices. Results from this study indicate that for cases with evidence of liquefaction triggering in the accelerograms, the majority of liquefaction evaluation procedures yielded correct predictions, regardless of whether surficial manifestation of liquefaction was evident or not. For cases with no evidence of liquefaction in the accelerograms (and no observed surficial evidence of liquefaction triggering), the majority of liquefaction evaluation procedures predicted liquefaction was triggered. When all cases are used to assess the performance of liquefaction severity index frameworks, a poor correlation is shown between the observed severity of liquefaction surface manifestation and the calculated severity indices. However, only using those cases where the liquefaction evaluation procedures yielded correct predictions, there is an improvement in the correlation, with the Liquefaction Severity Number (LSN) being the best performing of the frameworks investigated herein. However scatter in the relationship between the observed and calculated surficial manifestation still remains for all liquefaction severity index frameworks.     

Liquefaction in silty soils—screening and remediation issues

Current techniques for liquefaction screening, ground modification for liquefaction mitigation, and post-improvement verification rely on knowledge gained from extensive research on clean sands, field observations of liquefied ground, and judicial correlation of normalized penetration resistance [(N₁)₆₀,q_c1N] or shear wave velocity (v_s1) data with field liquefaction observations. Uncertainties prevail on the direct extrapolation of such techniques for silty soil sites. This paper examines laboratory data on liquefaction resistance, strength, and v_s1 of sands and silty soils using grain contact density as the basis. Effect of silt content on cyclic resistance, strength, m_v, and c_v is examined in this light. Rational insights on effects of silt content on the current screening techniques based on (N₁)₆₀, q_c1N, and v_s1 to silty soils are offered. Recent advances and modifications to the traditional densification, drainage, and permeation grouting techniques to make them viable for silty soils are discussed.     

汶川地震砾性土液化场地特征解析

通过成都平原砾性土场地勘察测试,研究汶川地震中大量砾性土液化场地的基本特性,找出一般规律,对砾性土场地液化发生主客观原因提出解释,并修正以往若干认识偏差.分析表明:汶川地震液化砾性土层粒径范围宽,含砾量5%~85%甚至更大,同时其实测剪切波速140~270 m·s~(-1),修正剪切波速160~314 m·s~(-1),都远超历史记录;液化砾性土场地1/2集中在Ⅷ度区内,表明如砂土层液化一样,砾性土场地大规模液化需要较强地震动触发,但超过触发强度后液化规模增长均有限;成都平原浅表地层二元基本结构是汶川地震中出现大量砾性土场地的客观条件之一,该结构可使饱和砾性土层处于封闭状态,构成了砾性土液化的基本条件;虽然液化砾性土层剪切波速很高,但实际上大多松散状态,是此次地震大量砾性土场地发生液化的客观条件之二;地震中地表(井中)喷出物与地下实际液化土类大相径庭,且液化层埋深大多小于6.0 m,以往以地表喷出物反推地下液化层土性类型的做法不再成立;认为砾性土层波速大、透水性好而不会液化的传统认识也不再成立,但砾性土层液化条件与砂土层液化条件不同,前者要求更高.     

Assessing CPT-based methods for liquefaction evaluation with emphasis on the cases from the Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake

In the early morning (1:47 Taiwan time) of September 21, 1999, the largest earthquake of the century in Taiwan (M_w=7.6, M_L=7.3) struck this island country. The earthquake killed more than 2400 people and caused great destruction to buildings, bridges, dams, highways, and railways. One of the causes for heavy damages to the structures is soil liquefaction and ground settlement during the earthquake. In this paper, investigation of soil liquefaction and case histories of liquefaction are presented. Three CPT-based simplified methods, the Robertson method, the Olsen method, and the Juang method, are examined using the case histories derived from the Chi-Chi earthquake. The results of the comparison show that the Juang method is more accurate than the two methods in predicting liquefaction potential of soils based on the cases derived from the Chi-Chi earthquake, although all three methods are quite comparable in accuracy.     

关于砂土液化判别的若干意见

简要回顾了我国抗震规范中液化判别方法的发展历史,并对我国若干规范中的液化初步判别的条文进行了比较,提出了修改意见;对我国有代表性的几种液化判别方法及基于Seed简化方法修正的美国NCEER法进行了评述和综合对比,指出了我国现行若干规范中有关液化判别规定方面的错误;此外,还将GB50011－2001《建筑抗震设计规范》液化判别公式转变为类似于NCEER法的表达式,拓宽了该规范方法的应用范围。最后,结合某长江大桥工程的地基液化判别工作,探讨了深层土液化判别的可能性,结果表明,本文建议的方法是可行的。     

Estimation of residual shear strength ratios of liquefied soil deposits from shear wave velocity

For sites susceptible to liquefaction induced lateral spreading during a probable earthquake, geotechnical engineers often need to know the undrained residual shear strength of the liquefied soil deposit to estimate lateral spreading displacements, and the forces acting on the piles from the liquefied soils in order to perform post liquefaction stability analyses. The most commonly used methods to estimate the undrained residual shear strength (Sur) of liquefied sand deposits are based on the correlations determined from liquefaction induced flow failures with SPT and CPT data. In this study, 44 lateral spread case histories are analyzed and a new relationship based on only lateral spread case histories is recommended, which estimates the residual shear strength ratio of the liquefiable soil layer from normalized shear wave velocity. The new proposed method is also utilized to estimate the residual lateral displacement of an example bridge problem in an area susceptible to lateral spreading in order to provide insight into how the proposed relationship can be used in geotechnical engineering practice.     

Neural network model for liquefaction potential in soil deposits using Turkey and Taiwan earthquake data

Simplified methods have been practiced by researchers to assess nonlinear liquefaction potential of soil. Derived from several field and laboratory tests, various simplified procedures such as stress-based, strain-based, Chinese criteria, etc. have been developed by utilizing case studies and undisturbed soil specimens. In order to address the collective knowledge built up in conventional liquefaction engineering, an alternative general regression neural network model is proposed in this paper.To meet this objective, a total of 620 sets of data including 12 soil and seismic parameters are introduced into the model. The data includes the results of field tests from the two major earthquakes that took place in Turkey and Taiwan in 1999 and some of the desired input parameters are obtained from correlations existing in the literature.The proposed GRNN model was developed in four phases, mainly: identification phase, collection phase, implementation phase, and verification phase. An iterative procedure was followed to maximize the accuracy of the proposed model. The case records were divided randomly into testing, training, and validation datasets.Generating a model that takes into account of 12 soil and seismic parameters is not feasible by using simplified techniques; however, the proposed GRNN model effectively explored the complex relationship between the introduced soil and seismic input parameters and validated the liquefaction decision obtained by simplified methods. The proposed GRNN model predicted well the occurrence/nonoccurrence of soil liquefaction in these sites. The model provides a viable tool to geotechnical engineers in assessing seismic condition in sites susceptible to liquefaction.     

黄土场地震动液化实例

湿度大的黄土在地震作用下会发生液化和震陷,已在室内动力试验和古地震的调查中得到了证实。目前工程规范对黄土的液化预测判别尚缺乏经验,暂未列入规范。本文介绍了一些黄土地基处理施工的实例,证明饱和黄土在受到机械振动或冲击作用的影响后,会产生液化使所处理的地基下沉,对开展黄土液化机理、液化判别与危害评价方法及工程预防措施的研究具有现实意义。