地壳中岩浆沿已有断层运移的数值模拟——在长白山天池火山的应用

本文利用有限元及有限差分的方法,对壳内岩浆房或岩浆囊中的岩浆在构造应力及由于围岩与岩浆的密度差产生的浮力作用下,沿已有断层向上运移的动力学过程进行了数值模拟.在岩浆囊顶部与上覆岩层接触处,沿着已有微小破裂,岩浆在一定超压力条件下使已有断层张开并继续向上延伸,从而形成岩浆向上运移的通道.研究了岩浆黏度、密度差、模型深度对最小超压力（岩浆运移到地表所需的最小岩浆房超压力）的影响.在10 km深度的地壳中,若岩浆黏度为0.1~10³ Pa·s,当超压力达到17~20 MPa时,岩浆压力可以驱动岩浆运移到地表层;同时,岩浆动力黏度越大,使岩脉运移到地表需要的超压力就越大.当密度差为300~700 kg·m^-3,其变化对超压力的影响比较小.本文亦对比了三维应力条件和二维平面应变条件下不同结果,比较了不同条件下岩浆运移造成的地表垂直位移变化.结合长白山天池火山地区的区域地质环境,对长白山天池火山岩浆运移条件进行了参数试验性计算分析,估算了在给定长白山天池火山模型条件下地下可能存在的岩浆囊的大小,其结果对认识长白山天池火山地区岩浆活动及相关的预测和监控有参考意义.     

火山活动状态及其机理的初步探讨

根据火山喷发实例总结了火山喷发在不同阶段的活动状态,并探讨了可能的物理机理。火山活动从岩浆补给到岩浆喷发的物理过程可分为3个阶段:1)岩浆补给阶段,岩浆囊压力差或过剩压力的大小决定了火山活动是否休眠或扰动,岩浆补给速率对压力差起了决定性的作用;2)通道形成阶段,当过剩压力超过围岩破裂强度时,围岩开始破裂,之后水热活动起了重要的作用;3)岩浆运移与失稳喷发阶段,主要是岩浆运移与地壳盖层的相互作用与失稳的过程。文中还讨论了火山活动状态与火山喷发危险性等级之间的关系,7个危险性等级分别对应于火山活动的7种状态,即休眠、平静、扰动、动荡、临界、活动、灾变     

西南印度洋脊中段Indomed-Gallieni洋中脊岩浆-构造动力模式

利用西南印度洋脊中段Indomed-Gallieni洋段49-51°E区段全覆盖高分辨率多波束水深地形资料,应用构造地貌学分析方法,结合区域地形及其他地球物理等资料,在分段分析49-51°E区段岩浆-构造动力学模式的基础上,进一步探讨了约10 Ma以来Indomed-Gallieni洋段的演化史.28、29洋段目前岩浆供应不足,在轴部不对称深断层的控制之下不对称扩张,属于超慢速扩张洋脊较常见的演化方式.轴部火山建造主要向北翼增生,发育与火山脊相关的火山地貌;南翼构造拉张作用强烈,地貌上可观察到大量断块,拆离断层可能大量存在.而27洋段水深浅、火山密集、轴部缺失裂谷,超慢速扩张下却具有较高的岩浆通量.Indomed-Gallieni洋段地形高地建造于一次岩浆增强事件,但应该不是因为Crozet热点的影响.27洋段为目前仍受该岩浆增强事件影响的唯一区段,但其强度和规模也在逐渐减小;包括28、29洋段在内的Indomed-Gallieni段其他部分,已重新恢复到岩浆供应不足的正常超慢速扩张洋脊演化模式.28、29洋段和27洋段岩浆供应均存在岩浆通量由多至少的周期,周期内岩浆供应较多时期轴部建脊,减少时期轴部火山建造裂离.但27洋段由于仍受岩浆增强事件的影响,与28、29洋段表现形式不同,主要表现为火山建造裂离方式、岩浆供应周期长短以及构造活动强烈程度的不同.     

长白山火山的历史与演化

长白山火山跨越中朝两国,在我国境内包括天池火山、望天鹅火山、图们江火山和龙岗火山,火山活动从上新世持续到近代,是我国最大的第四纪火山分布区。长白山火山的母岩浆是钾质粗面玄武岩,将长白山火山岩区称钾质粗面玄武岩省,岩浆结晶分异作用和混合作用主导了岩浆演化过程。天池火山之下地壳岩浆房和地幔岩浆房具双动式喷发特点,一方面来自地幔的钾质粗厨玄武岩浆直接喷出地表;另一方面钾质粗面玄武岩浆持续补给地壳岩浆房,发生岩浆分离结晶作用和混合作用,导致双峰式火山岩分布特征和触发千年大喷发。西太平洋板块俯冲-东北亚大陆弧后引张是长白山火山活动的动力学机制。     

华南褶皱系典型成矿区多期次构造演化与控矿机制数值模拟

本文基于流-固耦合模型对研究区主要控矿构造的发育演化过程和控矿机制进行数值模拟研究.根据研究区不同构造期次下形成的最大主应力、体积应变、剪切应变、岩层渗透率变化、孔隙压力以及流体流动样式等成矿地质环境的定量结果,分析个旧超大型成矿系统的构造-岩浆-流体要素的相互作用机制.模拟结果显示,在成矿期构造应力场作用下,在先存背斜构造部位形成了强烈的张应力环境,构成了一系列沿北北东走向的有利侵位通道和空间.岩浆反复侵位于此并产生巨大浮力作用,控制了背斜构造发育并形成了低压力、高渗透的扩容空间,促进矿液长效聚集成矿.另一方面,根据东西向断裂组的应力-应变状态及共轭剪切断裂成生发育情况,剖析了该组断裂的形成机制以及在成矿期的性质、运动状态及导矿容矿作用.     

腾冲火山及周边地区双差层析成像

利用云南腾冲火山地区15个固定台站记录到的7923次地震的P波到时资料,采用双差层析成像方法,反演得到腾冲火山及周边地区地壳及上地幔顶部三维P波速度结构和地震重定位结果.研究发现,腾冲火山区域地壳内存在明显的地震波低速区,P波速度低于整个区域地壳速度平均值超过15%,上地幔顶部存在规模较大的低速异常区.推测腾冲火山地区存在较大规模的地幔热物质上涌以及向地壳的侵入,热物质在地壳内以岩浆囊形式存储,并且壳内岩浆囊之间可能存在岩浆通道.通过联合反演获得的地震重定位结果显示,丛集地震位置更加集中,其展布特征与断裂构造具有显著的对应关系,表明研究区域断裂构造比较活跃.获得的高分辨率三维P波层析成像结果,为进一步认识火山地区岩浆存储特征以及地震分布与区域构造之间的关系提供了新的地震学依据.     

岩浆囊的地震学探测技术概述

在过去的２０年里，探测和勾画岩浆囊的科学有了长足的进步。多种地震技术，包括速度和衰减的层析成像，地震活动性映像，反射和折射，势场技术，如重力，大地测量和电磁观测，都提供了关于在几个火山下面的岩浆囊的大小，形状和物理状态的有用信息。本文对这些技术进行了讨论和综述。我国已在Ｐ波波速层析成像方面开展了一系列工作。特别是在云南地区已得到了该省及其邻近地区的三维速度图像。由于现有台网不够密集，获得的速度图像分辨较低。尽管如此，在腾冲地区从２０ｋｍ到４５０ｋｍ深度都有低速度结构的显示。要想系统地研究腾冲火山地区的火山构造和地震活动性，以及探测该地区的岩浆囊，必须在该地区布设较密集的地震观测台网。     

腾冲火山多地球物理参数模型

腾冲火山区是中国最年轻的板内火山之一,岩浆活动频繁以及高温地热异常使其受到广泛关注.以往的地球物理探测结果显示腾冲火山区下方存在地壳岩浆囊,但其深部几何形态和分布一直存在争议.本文基于腾冲火山地区的大地电磁测深结果,并结合相关地质与地球物理资料,提出腾冲火山岩石圈尺度的多地球物理参数模型.我们的模型显示在腾冲火山区中下地壳内存在三个岩浆囊;腾冲火山区岩石圈上地幔可能存在岩浆囊,但需要长周期大地电磁测深数据进一步的验证.     

腾冲地区地壳速度结构的有限差分成像

利用流动台网和固定台站的地震观测数据,采用有限差分层析成像方法反演了腾冲及邻近地区的地壳P波速度结构,分析了腾冲火山区的岩浆活动和龙陵七级地震的深部构造成因.研究结果表明,腾冲火山区的地壳结构具有明显的非均匀性,浅表层偏低的速度主要为盆地内部的松散沉积层、新生代火山堆积及断裂附近的流体裂隙和热泉活动所致;5～15 km之间的高速体可能代表了早期火山通道内冷却固结的岩浆侵入体或难挥发的超铁镁质残留体;地壳深部的低速体则反映了熔融或半熔融的岩浆体,推断火山区下方的岩浆活动与龙陵七级地震震源区地壳深部的岩浆侵入来自同一源区--现今壳内岩浆活动的主要区域.龙陵震源区的地壳速度结构横向变化较大,怒江断裂东侧和龙陵断裂西侧为高速特征,介质应变强度较大,为应力积累的主要载体;两断裂之间的低速区向下延伸至下地壳,可能与地壳深部的岩浆侵入有关;龙陵断裂和怒江断裂明显控制了这一区域的岩浆活动,七级地震正是发生在断裂下方的速度边界附近.地壳介质强度的横向变化导致了震源区应力积累的不均一性,深部岩浆的聚集和动力作用是龙陵地区发生强震的主要原因.     

采用有限元等效体力方法数值分析火山区岩浆压力变形源——以长白山火山为例

火山区岩浆压力变形源的反演计算采用解析方法存在难以考虑地形的限制,采用传统有限元方法则存在网格依赖和计算量大的问题,反演过程中每一次正演由于岩浆房位置和大小变化都需要重新生成一次网格,耗费巨大的计算量和网格生成时间.为了克服上述问题,首次在长白山火山区使用"有限元等效体力"方法考虑地形影响反演地下岩浆压力变形源,计算岩浆应力扰动对周边断层稳定性的影响.在火山区地下压力变形源引起的地表形变计算中,地表地形影响不可忽略.埋深越浅,地表最大径向位移u_r所在的位置越靠近岩浆囊中心.当坡度达到30°时,最大垂向位移u_z所在位置不再位于岩浆囊正上方.椭球状岩浆囊压力源可以较好地模拟长白山火山地区2002—2003年间的GPS和水准测量.岩浆房扰动应力场和区域构造应力场的叠加有可能造成天池西部近EW向,天池北部以NW-NNW向为主的现今应力方向.岩浆房压力源引起的库仑应力变化有利于天池火山口NW向震群在空间上主要分布于火山口的西南和东北部.     

长白山天池火山2002~2005年火山扰动机制研究

地震、形变、火山气体地球化学等观测结果表明2002~2005年长白山天池火山经历了1次扰动事件。长白山站地震台（CBS台）记录到了扰动事件前后连续稳定的宽频带地震观测资料。前人的观测研究结果认为长白山天池火山扰动期间的火山地震类型主要为构造型火山地震，伴随少量的谐频型地震。本文通过匹配滤波技术，对1999~2007年扰动事件前后CBS台单台三分量地震观测数据进行模板扫描，获得3763个清晰的火山地震事件，其中谐频（HS）事件125个，构造（VT）事件3618个，并发现长周期（LP）事件20个。进而将火山扰动期间火山地震事件分为3种类型：构造型事件、长周期事件和谐频型事件，并提出2002~2005年长白山天池火山扰动机制模型：深源地震-火山能量传递模型，即汪清深源地震能量释放和传递，引发长白山火山区岩石圈应力状态波动。地幔岩浆房受应力干扰后，岩浆通道打开，少量岩浆侵入地壳岩浆房。岩浆混合脱气导致地壳岩浆房升压，引起顶部岩石微破裂，产生构造型火山地震，气体和流体填充这些裂隙，从而产生LP和HS型火山地震事件。     

Integration of micro-gravity and geodetic data to constrain shallow system mass changes at Krafla Volcano, N Iceland

New and previously published micro-gravity data are combined with InSAR data, precise levelling and GPS measurements to produce a model for the processes operating at Krafla volcano, 20 years after its most recent eruption. The data have been divided into two periods: from 1990 to 1995 and from 1996 to 2003 and show that the rate of deflation at Krafla is decaying exponentially. The net micro-gravity change at the centre of the caldera is shown, using the measured free air gradient, to be −85 μGal for the first and −100 μGal for the second period. After consideration of the effects of water extraction by the geothermal power station within the caldera, the net gravity decreases are −73±17 μGal for the first and −65±17 μGal for the second period. These decreases are interpreted in terms of magma drainage. Following a Mogi point source model, we calculate the mass decrease to be ∼2×10¹⁰ kg/year reflecting a drainage rate of ∼0.23 m³/s, similar to the ∼0.13 m³/s drainage rate previously found at Askja volcano, N. Iceland. Based on the evidence for deeper magma reservoirs and the similarity between the two volcanic systems, we suggest a pressure-link between Askja and Krafla at deeper levels (at the lower crust or the crust-mantle boundary). After the Krafla fires, co-rifting pressure decrease of a deep source at Krafla stimulated the subsequent inflow of magma, eventually affecting conditions along the plate boundary in N. Iceland, as far away as Askja. We anticipate that the pressure of the deeper reservoir at Krafla will reach a critical value and eventually magma will rise from there to the shallow magma chamber, possibly initiating a new rifting episode. We have demonstrated that by examining micro-gravity and geodetic data, our knowledge of active volcanic systems can be significantly improved.Editorial responsibility: A. Harris     

Shallow and deep reservoirs involved in magma supply of the 1944 eruption of Vesuvius

 During the 1944 eruption of Vesuvius a sudden change occurred in the dynamics of the eruptive events, linked to variations in magma composition. K-phonotephritic magmas were erupted during the effusive phase and the first lava fountain, whereas the emission of strongly porphyritic K-tephrites took place during the more intense fountain. Melt inclusion compositions (major and volatile elements) highlight that the magmas feeding the eruption underwent differentiation at different pressures. The K-tephritic volatile-rich melts (up to 3 wt.% H₂O, 3000 ppm CO₂, and 0.55 wt.% Cl) evolved to reach K-phonotephritic compositions by crystallization of diopside and forsteritic olivine at total fluid pressure higher than 300 MPa. These magmas fed a very shallow reservoir. The low-pressure differentiation of the volatile-poor K-phonotephritic magmas (H₂O<1 wt.%) involved mixing, open-system degassing, and crystallization of leucite, salite, and plagioclase. The eruption was triggered by intrusion of a volatile-rich magma batch that rose from a depth of 11–22 km into the shallow magma chamber. The first phase of the eruption represents the partial emptying of the shallow reservoir, the top of which is within the volcanic edifice. The newly arrived magma mixed with that resident in the shallow reservoir and forced the transition from the effusive to the lava fountain phase of the eruption. Received: 14 September 1998 / Accepted: 10 January 1999     

Crystallization of microlites during magma ascent: the fluid mechanics of 1980–1986 eruptions at Mount St Helens

Eruptions of Mount St Helens (Washington, USA) decreased in intensity and explosivity after the main May 18, 1980 eruption. As the post-May 18 eruptions progressed, albitic plagioclase microlites began to appear in the matrix glass, although the bulk composition of erupted products, the phenocryst compositions and magmatic temperatures remained fairly constant. Equilibrium experiments on a Mount St Helens white pumice show that at 160 MPa water pressure and 900°C, conditions deduced for the 8 km deep magma storage zone, the stable plagioclase is An₄₇. The microlites in the natural samples, which are more albitic, had to grow at lower water pressures during ascent. Isothermal decompression experiments reported here demonstrate that a decrease in water pressure from 160 to 2 MPa over four to eight days is capable of producing the albitic groundmass plagioclase and evolved melt compositions observed in post-May 18 1980 dacites. Because groundmass crystallization occurs over a period of days during and after decreases in pressure, microlite crystallization in the Mount St Helens dacites must have occurred during the ascent of each magma batch from a deep reservoir rather than continuously in a shallow holding chamber. This is consistent with data on the kinetics of amphibole breakdown, which require that a significant portion of magma vented in each eruption ascended from a depth of at least 6.5 km (160 MPa water pressure) in a matter of days. The size and shape of the microlite population have not been studied because of the small size of the experimental samples; it is possible that the texture continues to mature long after chemical equilibrium is approached. As the temperature, composition, crystal content and water content of magma in the deep reservoir remained approximately constant from May 1980 to at least March 1982, the spectacular decrease in eruption intensity during this period cannot be attributed to changes in viscosity or density of the magma. Simple fluld mechanical considerations indicate, however, that the observed changes in mass flux of magma can be modelled by a five-fold decrease in conduit radius from 35 to 7 m, produced perhaps by plating of magma along the conduit walls. The decreased ascent rates which accompanied the decrease in conduit radius can explain the change from closed-system to open-system degassing and the shift from explosive to effusive eruptions during 1980.     

Petrological characteristics and volatile content of magma from the 2000 eruption of Miyakejima Volcano, Japan

Among the series of eruptions at Miyakejima volcano in 2000, the largest summit explosion occurred on 18 August 2000. During this explosion, vesiculated bombs and lapilli having cauliflower-like shapes were ejected as essential products. Petrological observation and chemical analyses of the essential ejecta and melt inclusions were carried out in order to investigate magma ascent and eruption processes. SEM images indicate that the essential bombs and lapilli have similar textures, which have many tiny bubbles, crystal-rich and glass-poor groundmass and microphenocrysts of plagioclase, augite and olivine. Black ash particles, which compose 40% of the air-fall ash from the explosion, also have similar textures to the essential bombs. Whole-rock analyses show that the chemical composition of all essential ejecta is basaltic (SiO₂=51–52 wt%). Chemical analyses of melt inclusions in plagioclase and olivine phenocrysts indicate that melt in the magma had 0.9–1.9 wt% H₂O, <0.011 wt% CO₂, 0.04–0.17 wt% S and 0.06–0.1 wt% Cl. The variation in volatile content suggests degassing of the magma during ascent up to a depth of about 1 km. The ratio of H₂O and S content of melt inclusions is similar to that of volcanic gas, which has been intensely and continuously emitted from the summit since the end of August 2000, indicating that the 18 August magma is the source of the gas emission. Based on the volatile content of the melt inclusions and the volcanic gas composition, the initial bulk volatile content of the magma was estimated to be 1.6–1.9 wt% H₂O, 0.08–0.1 wt% CO₂, 0.11–0.17 wt% S and 0.06–0.07 wt% Cl. The basaltic magma ascended from a deeper chamber (10 km) due to decrease in magma density caused by volatile exsolution with pressure decrease. The highly vesiculated magma, which had at least 30 vol% bubbles, may have come into contact with ground water at sea level causing the large explosion of 18 August 2000.Editorial responsibility: S. Nakada, T. DuittAn erratum to this article can be found at     

Role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions

 The role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions is investigated by means of numerical modeling. The model is steady, one-dimensional, and isothermal; it calculates the separated flow of gas and a homogeneous mixture of liquid magma and crystals. The magma properties are calculated on the basis of magma composition and crystal content and are allowed to change along the conduit due to pressure decrease and gas exsolution. The effect of the presence of a two-component (water + carbon dioxide) exsolving gas phase is investigated by performing a parametric study on the CO₂/(H₂O+CO₂) ratio, which is allowed to vary from 0 to 0.5 at either constant total volatile or constant water content. The relatively insoluble carbon dioxide component plays an important role in the location of the volatile-saturation and magma-fragmentation levels and in the distribution of the flow variables in the volcanic conduit. In detail, the results show that an increase of the proportion of carbon dioxide produces a decrease of the mass flow rate, pressure, and exit mixture density, and an increase of the exit gas volume fraction and depth of the fragmentation level. A relevant result is the different role played by water and carbon dioxide in the eruption dynamics; an increasing amount of water produces an increase of the mass flow rate, and an increasing amount of carbon dioxide produces a decrease. Even small amounts of carbon dioxide have major consequences on the eruption dynamics, implying that the multicomponent nature of the volcanic gas must be taken into account in the prediction of the eruption scenario and the forecasting of volcanic hazard. Received: 6 March 1998 / Accepted: 28 October 1998     

Modelling of surface ground deformations in the Phlegraean Fields volcanic area,Italy

A preliminary finite elements model of the ground deformations observed at Phlegraean Fields is proposed. The model assumes an oblate-spheroid magma chamber at the depth of 5.4 km with major semiaxis of 1.5 km and minor semiaxis of 0.75 km. The dimensions of the magma chamber have been evaluated by using a thermal model based on the assumptions that a progressively cooling huge magmatic body is responsible for the volcanic activity at Phlegraean Fields in the last 35,000 years. Surface deformations caused by an over-pressure of 30 MPa in the magma chamber have been calculated. Constant, and temperature-dependent elastic parameters of the surrounding medium have been considered. Vertical displacements of the order of those presently observed at Phlegraean Fields can be obtained only with temperature-dependent elastic properties of the medium.     

On the conditions of sheet injections and eruptions in stratovolcanoes

Nearly all eruptions in stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes, central volcanoes) are supplied with magma through fractures. Consequently, a primary physical condition for an eruption to occur in a stratovolcano is that a magma-driven fracture is able to propagate to the surface. Magma-filled fractures, frozen or fluid, are referred to as sheet intrusions. More specifically, they are named dykes when subvertical, and inclined (or cone) sheets when inclined. Field observations indicate that most sheet intrusions do not reach the surface to feed eruptions but rather become arrested at various crustal depths. For this reason periods of volcanic unrest with sheet injections are much more common than volcanic eruptions. Whether a sheet intrusion becomes arrested or, alternatively, propagates to the surface depends primarily on the stress field in the stratovolcano. A stratovolcano normally consists of layers of contrasting mechanical properties, such as soft (low Youngs modulus) pyroclastic units and stiff (high Youngs modulus) lava flows. We present numerical models indicating that volcanoes composed of such layers commonly develop stress fields encouraging sheet and dyke arrest. The models indicate that a necessary condition for a sheet intrusion to reach the surface and feed a volcanic eruption is that the stress field along the sheet pathway becomes homogenised. We propose that much of the activity in a stratovolcano during a volcanic cycle encourages stress-field homogenisation. Field studies show that the sheet intrusions in individual stratovolcanoes have various dips: some are vertical dykes, others inclined sheets, and still others horizontal sills. Analytical models indicate that the dip of a sheet reaching the surface can have great effects on the magma transport during an eruption. This effect is normally greater for a flat volcano such as a collapse caldera than for a stratovolcano that forms a topographic high. We conclude that the shallower the dip of a sheet intrusion, the less will be its volumetric magma transport to the surface of a stratovolcano.Editorial responsibility: D Dingwell