《国际水道非航行使用法公约》被认可的区域差异性

《国际水道非航行使用法公约》是第一个生效、旨在实现跨境水资源公平合理利用的全球公约,但《公约》原则与条款争议造成缔约国数量有限,综合影响力受到削减。利用《全球跨境流域》、《国际淡水条约数据库》、《世界环境协定》等数据库信息等,确定《公约》缔约国的国际河流地理位置,结合各缔约国水资源及利用现状、跨境水资源分布及区域合作开发状况、《公约》原则和争议条款等,分析、判断缔约国的区域及目标差异特征,结果表明：① 缔约国仅分布于欧洲、亚洲和非洲3个地区36国家,《公约》被认可程度低、影响力有限;② 《公约》在平衡上下游权利与义务中对下游国谋求水开发利益更为有利,下游国缔约意愿更强、对其认可度最高;《公约》对中游、边界及上下游均衡及支流地区的流域国有制衡作用,影响着流域国的缔约愿意;③ 缺水状况和位居下游、国际河流地位重要及对跨境水资源的依赖驱使相关国家不断寻求增强对跨境水资源管控能力的途径,缔结《公约》成为一项重要选择;④ 区域性水法的发展与实践是流域国缔结《公约》的基础,绝大多数国家的缔约意愿多源于对水资源合作开发实践,而流域下游及中游国家则源于跨境水资源合作机制建设和水资源合作开发两个方面的经验。     

The role of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–International Hydrological Programme in sustainable water resources management in East Asian countries

For over 30 years, IHP (International Hydrological Programme) has been actively operating as a UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) international scientific cooperative programme in water research, water resources management, education and capacity-building, and the only broadly-based science programme of the UN (United Nations) system in this region. By a number of initiatives and networks, the IHP has progressively carried out activities on the quantity and quality of global/regional water resources, transboundary water resources management, mitigation of water related hazards, and water education. While addressing comprehensive areas over water challenges, greater emphasis has been placed on the role of water resources management for sustainable development and with respect to the expected changes in climate and environmental conditions. WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme) and its major product WWDR (World Water Development Report) in East Asia are under the framework of IHP which supports field oriented activities on monitoring freshwater, developing case studies, enhancing national assessment capacity, and facilitating decision making processes. In light of transboundary waters in IHP, RSC (Regional Steering Committee) plays a focal role for facilitating regional cooperation in the Southeast and East Asia and Pacific States. Furthermore, ISI (International Sediment Initiative) and IFI (International Flood Initiative) have significant roles, respectively, for the management of erosion and sedimentation in line with river system or reservoir management, and for the flood management focusing on capacity building of each country in East Asia. There are other major areas of concern under UNESCO’s IHP programme in East Asia, specifically in aspects including, mitigating water conflicts on transboundary aquifers through ISARM (International Shared Aquifer Resources Management), water management of arid areas through Water and Development Information for Arid Lands- A Global Network (Asian G-WADI), and sustainable management of groundwater by UNESCO Water Chair, as well as water education through the programme of Sustainable Water Integrated Management- Educational Component.     

联合国教科文组织国际水文计划项目在东亚可持续水资源管理中的作用

For over 30 years, IHP (International Hydrological Programme) has been actively operating as a UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) international scientific cooperative programme in water research, water resources management, education and capacity-building, and the only broadly-based science programme of the UN (United Nations) system in this region. By a number of initiatives and networks, the IHP has progressively carried out activities on the quantity and quality of global/regional water resources, transboundary water resources management, mitigation of water related hazards, and water education. While addressing comprehensive areas over water challenges, greater emphasis has been placed on the role of water resources management for sustainable development and with respect to the expected changes in climate and environmental conditions. WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme) and its major product WWDR (World Water Development Report) in East Asia are under the framework of IHP which supports field oriented activities on monitoring freshwater, developing case studies, enhancing national assessment capacity, and facilitating decision making processes. In light of transboundary waters in IHP, RSC (Regional Steering Committee) plays a focal role for facilitating regional cooperation in the Southeast and East Asia and Pacific States. Furthermore, ISI (International Sediment Initiative) and IFI (International Flood Initiative) have significant roles, respectively, for the management of erosion and sedimentation in line with river system or reservoir management, and for the flood management focusing on capacity building of each country in East Asia. There are other major areas of concern under UNESCO’s IHP programme in East Asia, specifically in aspects including, mitigating water conflicts on transboundary aquifers through ISARM (International Shared Aquifer Resources Management), water management of arid areas through Water and Development Information for Arid Lands- A Global Network (Asian G-WADI), and sustainable management of groundwater by UNESCO Water Chair, as well as water education through the programme of Sustainable Water Integrated Management-Educational Component. Author: Ramasamy Jayakumar, native of India, Ph.D, specialized in application of remote sensing, GIS, geo-statistical methods in hydrogeological modelling and irrigation water management.     

Research progress on international rivers in Asia

With the regional population growth, socioeconomic development, more and more attention has been paid to issues on the shared water allocation and the transboundary eco-security conservation during the development of water resources in the international rivers. In this paper, the existing major problems on transboundary waters in different sub-regions of Asia, such as water shortage, transboundary waters pollution, fragile eco-environment are discussed. Then, the key scientific issues to be concerned in the next study progress on the basis of the analyses of the new research directions and focus fields are raised: (1) unpredicted changes of the hydrologic and water system, and their impacts on the allocation of the sharing waters by global changes; (2) models of the international cooperation on the international rivers on the studies of international and national water laws or regulations, policies, the relative experiences and the case studies; (3) quantificational assessment on environmental flow, available water, and the comprehensive functions and values of the international watercourse system; (4) studies on transboundary aquatic bio-diversity maintenance, transboundary pollution supervision and treatment under the rules and principles accepted by the riparian states; (5) issues on transboundary compensation at the rules of “payments for using”, “payments for harm” and “compensation for benefit”; (6) using advanced 3S techniques to promote the integrated watershed development and management; and so on.     

亚洲国际河流研究进展

1 General situation Entering the 21st century, resource and environmental diplomacy is regarded as a new element for establishing future international patterns of cooperation. Transboundary resources and environmental issues in international river basins …     

Progress in the Research on Benefit-sharing and Ecological Compensation Mechanisms for Transboundary Rivers

Transboundary rivers have important geopolitical and geo-economic connotations, but riparian states of transboundary rivers are often driven by their own rapid population growth and economic development to be-come involved in regional conflicts about the development and use of water resources. Therefore, finding a balance between the need for fair and reasonable development of water resources and the effective protection of environment from an ecological perspective has become a major problem faced by the international community. This paper begins with consideration of international water laws related to transboundary rivers and then reviews advances in the research on benefit-sharing, ecological compensation mechanisms, and adaptive management systems. We believe that existing international water laws form a complete legal system and that more attention needs to be paid to transboundary cooperation and sustainable water resource use. With respect to how transboundary water conflicts are resolved, there is a trend to move away from single water resource allocation (a zero-sum game) to benefit-sharing in order to achieve a win-win situation for riparian states, but there are still some difficulties in transboundary ecological compensation. In China, the central government has paid attention to horizontal ecological compensation between upstream and downstream, offering guidance to promote establishment of inter-province ecological compensation. Based on existing practice, horizontal ecological compensations are still in their infancy, small in scale, supported by a weak legal system, lacking market mechanisms to encourage their use and relying on fiscal transfers as the method of payment. In the future, China will need to intensify its research on legal system development, international cooperation, and benefit-sharing as these impact transboundary water resources. Because government can be seen as a management department with multiple identities (enabler, regulator and buyer), to improve adaptive transboundary ecological compensation mechanisms, government must develop as soon as possible data sharing platforms, standards of water consumption behaviors and intergovernmental policies (or ordinances).     

The Asian Development Bank and the production of poverty: Neoliberalism,technocratic modernization and land dispossession in the Greater Mekong Subregion

In 1992 the Asian Development Bank coordinated a meeting between government representatives from China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam to discuss regional economic integration. From that meeting the Greater Mekong Subregion was formed to promote peace and prosperity within the Mekong countries. Yet, despite more than more than USD 14 billion being spent on facilitating trade, development and infrastructural ties between these nations, poverty remains widespread. This article provides a critical analysis of the Asian Development Bank and its approach to development and poverty alleviation within the Greater Mekong Subregion. It suggests that the institution's technocratic neoliberal development ideology provides a discursive legitimation to processes of displacement and dispossession that has seen the production of new forms of poverty. To make this argument, the article draws on an ethnographic study of the local‐scale implications of forced resettlement at the Luang Prabang Airport. It conducts an analysis of how the Asian Development Bank defines and measures poverty, and critiques the institution's resettlement guidelines for the airport project.     

"拓展亚洲国际河流跨境水与生态安全合作"国际学术研讨会在大理召开

The International Workshop on "Expanding Transboundary Cooperation for Water and Environment Security in Asia's International Rivers" was held on December 10-14, 2005, Dali, Yunnan, China. It was organized by Tsinghua University, the World Bank Institute (WBI), the United Nations University (UNU) and Asian International Rivers Center (AIRC). A total of over 60 scholars from the USA, Canada, Australia, Finland, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, India, Sri Lanka, Iran and China participated in this workshop. The topics include seeking reasonable utilization and sustainable conflict resolutions related to transboundary water resources, and transboundary eco-security maintenance; expanding cooperation between Asia and the rest of the world on international river issues, identifying potential opportunities; and possibility of a common research agenda for addressing environment changes in Mekong River Basin.     

The Mekong River Commission: transboundary water resources planning and regional security

The Mekong River Commission (MRC) was established in 1995 and represents a third chapter in the Mekong Project's organizational history. The MRC's predecessors – the Mekong Committee (1957–78) and the Interim Mekong Committee (1978–95) – operated under difficult circumstances, yet made many contributions to transboundary river basin planning and international diplomacy. The MRC's 2001 Work Programme represents a shift in Mekong basin planning from the era of the Mekong Committee. This shift is largely embodied by a change from a project–oriented focus to an emphasis on better management and preservation of existing resources. The MRC is in a position to help address the related issues of population growth, environmental preservation and regional security. In doing so, the MRC will benefit from the programmes and international collaboration established by its predecessors.     

A Geography of Children's Vulnerability: Gender,Household Resources,and Water‐Related Disease Hazard in Northern Pakistan*

Water‐related diseases continue to pose major threats to children's survival and well‐being in many places in the developing world. This article develops a theoretical perspective on the ways in which children's vulnerability to water‐related disease hazard is produced within the everyday circumstances of livelihood and child care. Central to this analysis is the role that household resources play in mediating or shaping particular microenvironments of health risk. Further, the effects of local geographies of gender on how household resources are accessed and on how child care is structured are examined. Children's vulnerability is evaluated in a community in the District of Gilgit in northern Pakistan, a region presently undergoing tremendous social and economic transformation. The case study highlights household‐level response and adaptation to child health risks associated with diarrheal disease transmission and infection in this mountain environment. The case study draws from ethnographic fieldwork involving qualitative household microstudies and interviewing to elicit mothers' resource and risk‐response strategies in the context of changes in livelihood systems and household dynamics.     

An Investigation of the Role of Social Dynamics in Conversion to Sustainable Integrated Mangrove‐Shrimp Farming in Ben Tre Province,Vietnam

In the coastal area of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta, much of the mangrove forest has been cut to make space for expansion of industry and aquaculture. Export‐oriented shrimp farming is a particularly fast‐growing business. Nonetheless, the importance of tropical mangrove forest ecosystems for coastal protection and marine biodiversity is widely recognized. The Vietnamese government, supported by non‐governmental organizations and donors, has sought to restore mangrove forest. To this end, the government has promoted mixed or integrated mangrove‐shrimp systems in which farmers maintain at least 40 per cent of their area under mangrove cover. Since 2012, mangrove reforestation, care and protection has benefited from local authority stimulus as well. Multiple studies have examined the condition of the mangrove forest in Ben Tre and other coastal provinces of the Mekong Delta. However, no research has investigated the role of social dynamics in farmers’ willingness to shift to, or maintain, integrated mangrove‐shrimp systems. Specifically, the influence of information, group dynamics and social learning on farmer decision‐making is poorly understood and, indeed, hardly investigated in Vietnam. This article reports on a study of social processes in three communes in Binh Dai District, Ben Tre Province, Vietnam. We conducted 42 semi‐structured interviews (with 34 farmers and eight local officials) and used secondary data. Our preliminary findings indicate that social dynamics in these communes were issue‐driven and played an important role in farmers’ decisions to adopt, or convert to, the integrated mangrove‐shrimp farming system. Television, radio, the internet, books, neighbours and training courses all had some influence in farmer decision‐making processes. However, our findings suggest that the accessibility, usefulness, relevance and approach of these communication methods must be improved if they are to adequately inform and support local farmers.     

澜沧江水资源系统变化与大湄公河次区域合作的关联分析

针对澜沧江-湄公河水资源系统变化的跨境影响这一受到国际社会,特别是下游国关注的问题,结合流域各国水需求及区域性协定之规定,对比分析澜沧江大坝建设后对径流的影响,发现：（1）年出境水量呈小幅增长趋势,总体上有利于下游水资源利用;（2）个别年份枯季出境水量明显减少的主要原因是降水少和个别电站运行失误所致,电站本质上不会对下游用水和生态产生实质性危害;（3）出境水量变化主要对下游中上段产生明显影响,越往下游影响力越小;（4）出境水质稳定。建议：尽早制定流域综合规划和国际水分配方案;合理调整水库运行方案,避免出境水量或水位的大幅变化,减少跨境负面影响,维护区域合作。     

Smell this: Singapore's curry day and visceral citizenship

In August 2011, many Singaporean citizens grabbed their cooking pots and used the city‐state's national obsession with food to express growing dissatisfaction with immigration and integration trends. The ‘cook and share a pot of curry’ event—a local response to Chinese newcomers complaining about the smell of their Indian Singaporean neighbours’ food—is significant for its use of smell to catalyse a collective citizen reaction and for its reliance on contemporary social media. By analysing this event, we intend to (1) conceptualize the role of smell and viscera in framing citizenship; (2) understand how smells shed light on the city‐state's contemporary ethnic politics and sense of national identity; and (3) reframe the significance of curry day as an expression of visceral citizenship that complements how the state frames Singaporean citizenry. We maintain that curry day sheds light on a specific dimension of Singaporean citizenship, as it uses smell, viscera and embodied activism to mobilize against rationalistic state‐defined distinctions between local and international concerns, economic objectives and social cohesion, inter‐racial harmony and national identity.     

The key indicators of transboundary water apportionment based on international laws and cases

Transboundary water, more competitive utilization and uncertain availability under the globalization trend, the issue of its apportionment which directly impacts national benefits of each riparian state is becoming one of the important topics in the world. Water is scarce in China, the most important upstream state in Asia, and this task has to be thought over in the coming future. Based on ＂International Freshwater Treaties Database＂ （1820-2007） by Oregon State University, and publications and reports on transboundary water utilization and management since 1999, 28 indicators of water apportionment adopted in 49 international treaties and cases in 1864-2002 are divided into 6 types, the spatial and temporal characteristics of the adopted indicators are analyzed in order to find the key indicator（s） of transboundary water apportionment. The major results include： the major adopted indicators, have significant differences among 5 regions/continents, the indicators at rank first and second place in the developed region （North America and Europe） according to the adopted times are ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂, but in the developing region （Asia, Africa and South America）, the ranking order of the above two indicators is reversed; the major adopted indicators in the watersheds with insufficient water are ＂mean annual runoff＂ and ＂keeping minimum water flow＂, the ones in the watersheds with sufficient water are ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂maximum water intake＂; the international treaties signed from the first phase to the fourth phase, the developing process shows a progress of ＂fewer-increasing a lot-decreasing rapidly-equation basically＂, the regional distribution of the treaties shifts mainly from the developed region to the developing one, especially to Asia and Africa; the major adopted indicators shifts from ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1864-1945, to ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂maximum water intake＂ in 1946-1971, then to ＂hydraulic facility operation＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1972-1991, and finally to ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1992-2002, the process shows similar a loop. Finally, the key indicator on transboundary water apportionment can be determined as ＂keeping minimum water flow＂.     

通过水资源整体多目标利用和管理推进澜沧江—湄公河流域的持续发展

澜沧江──湄公河是中国和东南亚地区最为重要的国际河流，目前成为国际上众多国家、国际组织关注和投资的热点地区［１，３］。按亚洲开发银行（ＡＤＢ）组织的“大湄公河次区域合作计划”［４］直接影响地域２３２×１０４ｋｍ２，人口超过２．２亿，大范围内的自然环境、社会和经济状况都将发生巨大变化。１９９５年４月５日下湄公河四国签署的《湄公河流域持续发展合作协定》［５］，为该流域区的持续发展注入了新机。据初步分析，如果以水资源多目标综合利用为目的进行整体规划和管理，将能源开发集中在澜沧江干流和下湄公河支流，在洞里萨湖修建拦河闸堰，在湄公河三角洲修建泄洪道，在大城市与人口和耕地集中而易遭受洪水危害的干流两侧兴建防洪堤，并加强水文、气象预测和预报，则下湄公河流域的电力需求及灌溉、洪水、咸水入侵以及土壤酸性水危害等问题，在很大程度上均可得到解决，无需兴建庞大的下湄公河干流梯级电站（水库），这不仅可以避免大量的资金投入、大规模的移民和土地淹没，而且可以阻止大坝对湄公河水生生物的危害，促进流域持续发展。     

基于河流健康及国际法的跨境水分配关键指标及阈值

基于前期研究中获得的8个河流健康主要评价指标、3个主要跨境水分配指标的结果以及指标之间的相关性,确定了河流健康和跨境水分配的关键指标：多年平均水量、最大取用水量和最小维持水量。跟踪查询《国际淡水条约数据库》内1864-2002年应用3个关键指标的38个国际条约及其所涉及28条国际河流的主要水文信息,通过对条约中水分配指标的标准化计算和分析,得到各指标阈值及其区域性特征：① 最小维持水量指标得到普遍应用,其次是多年平均水量指标,而最大取用水量指标应用率明显低于前两个指标。② 应用多年平均水量指标,在界河上基本确定了平均分配方案,阈值为50%;“内河”属性支流的阈值为100%;跨境河流上产生了较多的差额分配方案和较多的上游国用水多于下游国的方案。③ 最小维持水量指标,其应用有从发达地区向发展中地区扩展、从保证用水向维持生态用水发展的特点;当该指标在跨境和界河的河流尺度上用于保证供水时,该指标阈值平均分别为41.7%和50%,且流域国家实力对其影响极为明显,而在跨境河流河段尺度上阈值平均为36.1%;用于维持河道生态水量时,阈值平均为14.7%,并有逐步增长的趋势。     

哈萨克斯坦跨界河流国际合作问题

哈萨克斯坦是中亚地区的“大国”,与四周比邻的国家均存在跨界水体联系,有44%的地表水来自邻国。跨界河流水资源开发利用与生态环境保护问题,是涉及国家政治、经济、安全、外交大局的重大战略问题。通过分析哈国地表水分布特点,简要回顾总结了与其邻国在跨界河流方面的合作情况;对哈国所担忧的水安全问题及采取的主要对策,进行了深入剖析,并就跨界河流管理未来的合作路径、跨界河流利用未来的分水原则、哈俄跨界河流水污染未来的解决途径、中亚国家间解决咸海危机的前提条件等问题,进行了分析讨论;指出对共享水资源的管理既可以成为中亚地区和平的力量,也可能成为冲突的因素,管理这种相互依存的资源是当今国际社会面临的一项关系人类发展的重大挑战。研究哈萨克斯坦跨界河流国际合作及其对核心利益问题的观点、认识、所采取的不同策略,对于处理好中哈跨界河流问题具有积极现实意义。     

POWER, NATURE AND NEOLIBERALISM: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF WATER IN CHILE

Since the 1990s, international water sector reforms have centred heavily on economic and market approaches. In regard to water resources management, tradable water rights have been promoted, often supported by the neoliberal model adopted in Chile. Chile's 1981 Water Code was reformed to comprise a system of water rights that could be freely traded with few restrictions. International financial institutions have embraced the Chilean model, claiming that it results in more efficient water use, and potentially fosters social and environmental benefits. However, in Chile the Water Code is deeply contested. It has been criticised for being too permissive and has produced a number of problems in practice. Moreover, attempts to modify it have become the focus of a lengthy polemic debate. This paper employs a political ecology perspective to explore the socio‐environmental outcomes of water management in Chile, drawing on a case study of agriculture in the semi‐arid Norte Chico. The case illustrates how large‐scale farmers exert greater control over water, while peasant farmers have increasingly less access. I argue that these outcomes are facilitated by the mode of water management implemented within the framework of the Water Code. Through this preliminary examination of social equity and the environmental aspects of water resources management in Chile, I suggest that the omission of these issues from the international debates on water rights markets is a cause for concern.     

需水供水联合管理面临的新的机遇与挑战

在未来10年以及更长的一段时间,全球和中国的水资源管理面临着紧迫的挑战,这些挑战包括水管控、水与食物、水与自然、水与能源、水与健康以及与气候变化相适应的与水相关的跨国合作,所有这些都与区域和全球尺度水安全相关。为了应对这些挑战,无论在中国还是世界范围,水资源管理战略必须解决需水管理(WDM)和供水管理(WSM)这两个重要问题,以及需水管理和供水管理的联合管理问题。本文将站在一个全球高度上研讨这一紧迫问题。通过分析,建议如下:在地方一级进行关于供水和需水管理的知识转让和经验交流和实践;在国家一级制定完善促进供需水管理的指导方针,最终发展到流域和区域级别。由于大陆或次大陆存在很大的差异,具体的区域指导报告是必要的,其中包括:专门针对现有可利用水资源和水需求的评估(通过使用水文方法进行水资源的评估以及需水调查和预测);关于组织、机构、税收、培训和教育的供需水的联合管理,在全球范围起草一个联合国公约草案。并在联合国会议上强调跨国界流域管理和/或竞争用水情况下的管理和/或水匮乏的供水需水联合管理的重要性。参照上述列举的目标,这些目标可能侧重于4个方面:在地方和国家一级(短期)供水管理;在地方和国家一级(短期)需水管理;在国家一级(中期和长期)供水管理和需水管理联合管理:在国际/区域一级(中期和长期)供水管理和需水管理联合管理。     

FACILITATING REGIONAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED MULTI-OBJECTIVE UTILIZATION, MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE LANCANG-MEKONG RIVER BASIN

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