地面温度与雪面温度对比

通过平行观测,对德州市气象局所辖的陵县(2003～2004年)、武城(2004～2005年)、德州(2006～2007年)3站冬季有积雪时,人工站与自动站的地面温度观测资料进行统计分析,得出有积雪状况下的β值(β=自动观测地面温度/人工观测雪面温度)。自动观测的地面温度更能代表实际地面状况,这种对比关系可为使用地表温度的水文及农业部门提供一个更加准确的地面温度使用参数β,以掌握地面温度的变化规律,为地能、地热、地水的预测与判断提供准确数据。     

雪面温度与地面温度的关系分析

人工地面观测转变为自动地面观测,其观测方法发生了较大的变化.通过平行观测,对鱼台县气象局(2006-2007年)及周边的金乡(2003-2004年)、微山(2004-2005年)的人工站与自动站的地面观测资料进行了对比分析,得出:无积雪状况下,人工站与自动站地面观测数据对比值较小;有积雪状况下,人工观测的雪面温度与自动观测的地面温度具有一定的对比关系.因自动观测的地面温度更能代表实际地面状况,所以,这种对比关系的出现,将为使用地表温度的水文及农业部门提供一个地表温度使用参数β,使这些部门能够更加准确地掌握地面温度的变化规律,从而为地能、地热、地表水的预测与判断提供准确数据.     

Surface ultraviolet radiation

Abstract

One of the main concerns regarding a decrease in stratospheric ozone is the consequential increasein the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. Radiationat UV wavelengths where ozone absorbs strongly is detrimental to most biological species, including humanbeings, so a decrease in stratospheric ozone could have a significant impact on the biosphere. This concern hasled to a significant increase in surface UV radiation research over the last two decades since the ratification ofthe Montreal Protocol. Studies include investigations into understanding the complicated absorption and scatteringprocesses involved in the radiative transfer of UV through the atmosphere as well as research on theimpacts of changes in UV radiation. Factors affecting surface UV radiation will be discussed, resources used tostudy surface UV radiation will be described and progress made in our understanding of surface UV radiationover the past two decades will be reviewed.     

地面降水诊断方程对降水过程的定量诊断

降水, 尤其是强降水 (暴雨), 对国家经济发展、 社会建设以及人民生活影响巨大, 然而由于同降水相关的物理过程非常复杂, 因此, 对降水的研究与预测十分困难。过去有关降水的研究大多关注水汽及水汽辐合 (输送) 的影响, 对与降水有关的水汽收支研究较多。Gao et al.(2005a) 率先将大气中水汽和云中水凝物 (云水、 雨水、 云冰、 雪及霰等) 的变化方程结合起来, 得到一个地面降水诊断方程, 从而可以将与降水有关的大气中水汽和云的演变过程在同一框架下定量地分析研究。本文利用一套21天长度的热带云分辨尺度模拟资料, 通过计算地面降水诊断方程中的局地水汽变化、 水汽辐合辐散率、 地面蒸发率以及云的变化率等各项, 分析了这些物理过程对降水的贡献, 指出局地水汽和云的变化率、 水汽辐合率, 地面蒸发率等均对地面降水有重要贡献。区域平均资料分析表明, 若水汽辐合与局地大气变干共存, 则产生强降水; 若存在水汽辐合但局地大气增湿或者存在水汽辐散但局地大气变干, 则引起中等强度降水; 若水汽辐散与局地大气增湿共存, 则造成弱降水。将降水划分成对流和层状降水进行分析发现, 对流降水率一般大于层状降水率, 水汽辐合是对流降水最主要的水汽源, 而局地大气变干则是层状降水最主要的水汽源。区域平均局地大气变干主要发生在降水性层状云区, 而最强的局地大气增湿则发生在对流云区和晴空区; 最强的局地云的消散发生在层状云区, 而最强的局地云的发展发生在对流云区。     

中国区域夏季地表气温与陆面过程耦合强度的分布特征

鉴于陆气相互作用对极端高温事件的重要作用,利用ERA5-Land陆面再分析资料,分析了基于敏感度的中国区域夏季地表气温与土壤湿度、土壤温度耦合强度的多时间尺度分布特征。研究结果表明,基于不同耦合过程指标定义的陆气耦合强度在中国区域呈不同的空间分布特征,其中基于潜热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域主要分布在中国的西北地区和长江流域,基于感热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域则主要分布在河套—内蒙古地区、新疆西南部地区,以及长江以南部分区域。这说明夏季地表气温对陆面变量异常的敏感度的区域差异,与不同区域陆面异常影响地表气温的主导过程密切相关。此外,陆气耦合强度的强弱还随时间尺度而变化,其中月—季节尺度的陆气耦合强度要明显弱于日、候及旬尺度的耦合强度;就日、候及旬时间尺度而言,基于潜热交换过程的陆面变量—地表气温的耦合强度在全国大部分地区随时间尺度的增加而减弱,基于感热通量的陆气耦合强度在南方大部分地区也随时间尺度的增加逐渐减弱,但在北方大部分地区则表现为随时间尺度增加逐渐增强。相比较于表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度,次表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度在中国西北地区明显减弱。     

Impact of Surface Exchange Coefficients and Sea Surface Cooling on Tropical Cyclone Simulation

The surface flux exchange associated with the exchange coefficients and upper ocean conditions is essential to the development of tropical cyclones (TCs). Using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, the present study has investigated the impact of exchange coefficients and ocean coupling during Super Typhoon Saomai (2006). Firstly, two experiments with different formula of roughness are conducted. The experiment with the Donelan formula for drag coefficient (Cd) and ramped formula for enthalpy coefficient (Ck) can simulate stronger intensity compared to other experiments due to the increased surface wind and enthalpy fluxes. That is because the new formulas allows for a smaller Cd and larger Ck in the high wind regime than the former formulas did. Moreover, two coupled simulations between WRF and a one-dimensional ocean model are conducted to examine the feedback of sea surface cooling to the TC. In the experiments with a horizontal uniform mixed layer depth of 70 m, the sea surface cooling is too weak to change the evolution of TC. While in the experiment with an input mixed layer calculated using the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM) data, the significant sea surface cooling induces obvious impact on TC intensity and structure. Under the negative feedback of sea surface cooling, the sensible and latent heat fluxes decreases, especially in the right part of Saomai (2006). The negative feedback with coupled ocean model plays a vital role in simulating the intensity and structure of TC.     

Estimating the Surface Wind Speed Over Drifting Pack Ice from Surface Weather Charts

Routine surface wind speed data, vital for the study of drifting pack ice, are not available for the polar oceans. Over sea, it has been demonstrated by Hasse that estimates of surface wind speed may be obtained from the geostrophic wind speed using linear formulae. Comparing estimated with observed data for six sites in Canada, it is found that the formulae may also be applied to obtain estimates of surface wind speed over pack ice.     

Surface diurnal cycle over Venezuela

Summary The surface thermodynamic diurnal cycle over Venezuela is compared with that over Kansas grassland and the Canadian boreal forest, illustrating the greater upward transport of water vapor out of the subcloud layer by shallow cumulus clouds in the tropics, which limits the daytime rise of _E .With 3 Figures     

Observed Wind Profiles and Turbulence Fluxes over an ice Surface with Changing Surface Roughness

Wind profile and eddy-correlation data obtained at two sites on a melting glacier surface in Iceland during the summer of 1996 are presented. Throughout the experiment the surface roughness increased rapidly from smooth to very rough, with the largest roughness element height obtained being about 1.7 m. In a layer close to the rough surface we find that the wind speed profiles were disturbed showing horizontal inhomogeneities as in a roughness sublayer. Its height was approximately two times the height of the main roughness elements (h) at both sites throughout the experiment. From the wind profiles and eddy-correlation data we calculated corrections for the displaced zero plane as a function of time and compared these with results obtained from a drag partitioning model. In general, the agreement was reasonable considering the ranges of uncertainty but the results indicate that the increasing horizontal anisotropy of the surface probably limits the use of the model. The values obtained for the roughness lengths are in good agreement with those calculated from a simple linear model, i.e., z₀/h = 0.5 with the frontal area index. Above the roughness sublayer the wind profiles, normalised standard deviations of wind speed, and the balance of the turbulence kinetic energy budget behaved as over an ideal homogeneous surface thereby confirming similarity of the flow.     

Surface and Mixed-Layer Variance Methods to Estimate Regional Sensible Heat Flux at the Surface

Turbulence measurements in the lower half of the convective boundary layer (CBL), which includes both mixed layer and surface layer, were carried out with five sonic anemometers mounted on a 213-m tower over a complex flat suburban area with patches of forest, agricultural land, houses and buildings. Also made were radiosoundings of temperature, humidity and wind speed, to determine the CBL height. The sonic anemometer data of wind speed and temperature were processed to derive the second-moment turbulent statistics and were analyzed to investigate the applicability of variance methods to estimate regional surface fluxes of sensible heat. It was found that the temperature variances in the lower mixed layer, coupled with universal functions, produced sensible heat fluxes H over the area with an rms error of the order of 40 Wm^-2 when compared with H values derived from the eddy correlation method. The variance of the vertical wind speed did not produce as good a result. In contrast, the surface-layer temperature variances yielded H values with rms error of the order of 20 Wm^-2, even though the underlying surface was non-uniform and highly non-isothermal, above which enhanced temperature variances could be suspected.     

Observational Study of Surface Wind along a Sloping Surface over Mountainous Terrain during Winter

The 2018 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games will be held in Pyeongchang, Korea, during February and March. We examined the near surface winds and wind gusts along the sloping surface at two outdoor venues in Pyeongchang during February and March using surface wind data. The outdoor venues are located in a complex, mountainous terrain, and hence the near-surface winds form intricate patterns due to the interplay between large-scale and locally forced winds. During February and March, the dominant wind at the ridge level is westerly; however, a significant wind direction change is observed along the sloping surface at the venues. The winds on the sloping surface are also influenced by thermal forcing,showing increased upslope flow during daytime. When neutral air flows over the hill, the windward and leeward flows show a significantly different behavior. A higher correlation of the wind speed between upper-and lower-level stations is shown in the windward region compared with the leeward region. The strong synoptic wind, small width of the ridge, and steep leeward ridge slope angle provide favorable conditions for flow separation at the leeward foot of the ridge. The gust factor increases with decreasing surface elevation and is larger during daytime than nighttime. A significantly large gust factor is also observed in the leeward region.     

到达地面的紫外辐射强度预报

紫外线指数一般用０～１５的数字来表示,通常规定,夜间的紫外线指数为０,在热带高原地区,晴天无云时的紫外线指数为１５。世界气象组织规定了单位紫外线指数相当于２５ｍＷ／ｍ＾２红斑加权剂量率。紫外线指数预报大致可分为统计预报方法和模式预报方法两种。统计预报方法主要依赖于高精密度、高准确性的紫外线实测资料和相关的气象要素观测;而模式预报方法则主要依赖于对平流层臭氧的预报和大气辐射传输模式的应用。     

到达地面的紫外辐射强度预报

紫外线指数一般用 0～ 1 5的数字来表示 ,通常规定 ,夜间的紫外线指数为 0 ,在热带高原地区 ,晴天无云时的紫外线指数为 1 5。世界气象组织规定了单位紫外线指数相当于 2 5 m W/m2 红斑加权剂量率。紫外线指数预报大致可分为统计预报方法和模式预报方法两种。统计预报方法主要依赖于高精密度、高准确性的紫外线实测资料和相关的气象要素观测 ;而模式预报方法则主要依赖于对平流层臭氧的预报和大气辐射传输模式的应用     

Characteristics of Turbulent Airflow Deduced from Rapid Surface Thermal Fluctuations: An Infrared Surface Anemometer

The intermittent nature of turbulent airflow interacting with the surface is readily observable in fluctuations of the surface temperature resulting from the thermal imprints of eddies sweeping the surface. Rapid infrared thermography has recently been used to quantify characteristics of the near-surface turbulent airflow interacting with the evaporating surfaces. We aim to extend this technique by using single-point rapid infrared measurements to quantify properties of a turbulent flow, including surface exchange processes, with a view towards the development of an infrared surface anemometer. The parameters for the surface-eddy renewal (\(\alpha \) and \(\beta )\) are inferred from infrared measurements of a single-point on the surface of a heat plate placed in a wind tunnel with prescribed wind speeds and constant mean temperatures of the surface. Thermally-deduced parameters are in agreement with values obtained from standard three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer measurements close to the plate surface (e.g., \(\alpha = 3\) and \(\beta = 1/26~\hbox {(ms)}^{-1}\) for the infrared, and \(\alpha = 3\) and \(\beta = 1/19~\hbox {(ms)}^{-1}\) for the sonic-anemometer measurements). The infrared-based turbulence parameters provide new insights into the role of surface temperature and buoyancy on the inherent characteristics of interacting eddies. The link between the eddy-spectrum shape parameter \(\alpha \) and the infrared window size representing the infrared field of view is investigated. The results resemble the effect of the sampling height above the ground in sonic anemometer measurements, which enables the detection of larger eddies with higher values of \(\alpha \). The physical basis and tests of the proposed method support the potential for remote quantification of the near-surface momentum field, as well as scalar-flux measurements in the immediate vicinity of the surface.     

藏北高原那曲地区不同下垫面地表粗糙度的变化特征研究

利用2008年、2010年和2012年藏北高原那曲地区MODIS卫星数据和站点大气湍流观测数据,分别应用Massman反演模型和一种确定地表粗糙度的独立方法,计算并分析地表粗糙度的时空变化特征并对反演模型进行验证,分析Z0m存在着明显的季节性变化特征。2—8月伴随冰雪消融与植被生长,Z0m逐渐增大,站点Z0m最大可达4～5 cm。9月至次年2月由于高原季风的衰退期等原因,Z0m逐渐减小,站点Z0m减小至1～2 cm。异常年份的降雪是Z0m明显低于常年的主要原因。依据Z0m的由小到大可以将下垫面分为冰雪类、稀疏草地类、茂盛草地类、城镇类4类,其中茂盛草地类和稀疏草地类分别占区域62. 49%和33. 74%,为主要类别,其Z0m年变化分别在2～6 cm和1～4 cm之间。两种计算方法得出的结论相关性较好,由于平均滑动作用,反演资料较实测计算结果偏小。整体而言,利用卫星数据反演算法计算的Z0m是可行的,并可应用于改进陆面模式参数,提高模式模拟的准确性,能更好的揭示区域的热通量交换。     

成都平原农田下垫面地表通量特征及能量平衡分析

地表能量平衡是地-气间相互作用的重要方式,随着涡旋相关技术在物质传输和能量交换研究中的广泛应用,如何评价其观测数据的可信度则变得尤为重要。利用成都平原温江大气边界层观测站2008年观测资料,分析了农田下垫面上能量收支各分量和辐射平衡各分量的特征及变化规律,并运用最小二乘法(Ordinary Least Squares,OLS)线性回归方法和能量平衡比率(Energy Balance Ratio,EBR)方法对湍流通量(感热与潜热通量之和)与有效能量(净辐射与地表土壤热通量之差)之间的关系进行了研究,得到了一些有意义的结果。      

荒漠戈壁下垫面表面动量和感热湍流通量参数化研究

用合理筛选以后的野外观测资料，研究了荒漠戈壁地表湍流通量参数化的问题。首先，分析了Monin-obukhov相似函数的特征，并拟台出了其经验公式。结果表明，风速和温度相似性函数随稳定度参数的变化曲线与典型经验曲线差异较小，并且在经验曲线分布范围以内，但中性时的值有所不同。同时，还用该资料给出了动量和标量粗糙度(感热粗糙度)长度的平均值及其标量粗糙度随摩擦速度的变化关系。发现标量粗糙度的平均值大约比动量粗糙度的小一个量级，并且随摩擦速度的增大而减小，但明显比其理论预测值要大。     

A Study on Parameterization of Surface Albedo over Grassland Surface in the Northern Tibetan Plateau

The relationship of surface albedo with the solar altitude angle and soil moisture is analyzed based on two-year (January 2002 to December 2003) observational data from the AWS (Automatic Weather Station) at MS3478 in the northern Tibetan Plateau during the experimental period of CEOP/CAMP-Tibet (Coordinated Enhanced Observing Period Asia-Australia Monsoon Project on the Tibetan Plateau). As a double-variable (solar altitude angle and soil moisture) function, surface albedo varies inconspicuously with any single factor. By using the method of approximately separating the double-variable function into two, one-factor functions (product and addition), the relationship of albedo with these two factors presents much better. The product and additional empirical formulae of albedo are then preliminarily fitted based on long-term experimental data. By comparison with observed values, it is found that the parameterization formulae fitted by using observational data are mostly reliable and their correlation coefficients are both over 0.6. The empirical formulae of albedo though, for the northern Tibetan Plateau, need to be tested by much more representative observational data with the help of numerical models and the retrieval of remote sensing data. It is practical until it is changed into effective parameterization formulae representing a grid scale in models.     

海表温度和地表温度与中国东部夏季异常降水

主要研究太平洋与印度洋海表温度和地表温度场与中国东部夏季降水的相关关系,以及异常大降水产生的下垫面条件.研究结果表明:(1)夏季黑潮区海温与同期长江流域的降水存在明显正相关,北方地区夏季降水与靠近非洲东岸的印度洋海域存在明显负相关.(2)夏季海温异常与同期中国降水异常场之间的相关分析(SVDI)表明,20世纪70年代后期当海温由La Nina多发期向El Nino多发期转变后,长江流域向异常多雨转变,而其北方和南方地区则向异常少雨方向发展.(3)中国东部区域降水与陆面温度的明显相关区有:(a)春,夏季热带非洲和夏季亚洲大陆部分地区地表温度与当年长江流域夏季降水存在显著正相关;(b)春季4、5月份部分亚洲大陆地表温度与当年华北地区夏季降水有明显负相关.(4)通过对比分析发现:长江(1954,1998和1999年)或江淮(1991年)流域几次特大异常降水的下垫面条件是黑潮区为海温正距平,同期欧亚大陆主要为正地表温度距平场.     

Inhomogeneity of the Land Surface and Problems in theParameterization of Surface Fluxes in Natural Conditions

Summary Eddy correlation techniques to determine the turbulent fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum in the near-surface atmospheric layer rely on the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, which requires stationarity and horizontal homogeneity. Experiments at specially selected sites over land and particularly over sea are used to develop this concept. Recent experiments, deliberately conducted in non-ideal conditions, show an underestimation of turbulent fluxes. Results from the field experiments FIFE, KUREX, TARTEX and SADE, point to a relationship between the underestimation of turbulent fluxes and terrain inhomogeneity. In order to systematically correct for this effect a scheme is suggested which uses fetch lengths of different types of surface in the sites surrounding the environment. In addition, horizontal differences in atmospheric stability above different surfaces are included in the correction scheme. This scheme might be useful for the design of validation experiments in non-homogeneous terrain. Received April 9, 1997 Revised July 16, 1997