Spatial Distribution of SO2, NO2, and O3 Concentrations in an Industrial City of Turkey Using a Passive Sampling Method

Ambient concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and ozone (O₃) were measured at 51 sampling points by passive sampling technique in Kocaeli, an important industrial city in Turkey. Samples were analyzed by UV‐spectrophotometry for NO₂ and O₃ and by ion chromatography for SO₂, respectively. Concentrations of SO₂, NO₂, and O₃ were determined to investigate their spatial distribution and source characterization. The sampling campaigns revealed an average concentration of 8 µg/m³ (max. 82 µg/m³) for SO₂, and 14 µg/m³ (max. 40 µg/m³) for NO₂, in summer; while average winter concentrations were 25 µg/m³ (max. 61 µg/m³) for SO₂, and 50 µg/m³ (max. 100 µg/m³) for NO₂. The maximum ozone concentrations were determined to be 86 µg/m³ in summer and 61 µg/m³ in winter downwind of the source areas of the precursor pollutant emissions. The results showed that NO₂ and SO₂ concentrations in industrial and urban areas were two to four times higher compared with rural areas in the summer and winter. In the light of the information obtained from the spatial interpolation of the pollutant concentrations, a selection of appropriate locations for continuous monitoring was suggested according to the European Community (EU) directives.     

Role of Nitrogen Oxides,Black Carbon,and Meteorological Parameters on the Variation of Surface Ozone Levels at a Tropical Urban Site – Hyderabad,India

In this study, temporal variations of surface ozone (O₃) were investigated at tropical urban site of Hyderabad during the year 2009. O₃, oxides of nitrogen (NO_x = NO + NO₂), black carbon (BC), and meteorological parameters were continuously monitored at the established air monitoring station. Results revealed the production of surface O₃ from NO₂ through photochemical oxidation. Averaged datasets illustrated the variations in ground‐level concentrations of these air pollutants along different time scales. Maximum mean concentrations of O₃ (56.75 ppbv) and NO_x (8.9 ppbv) were observed in summer. Diurnal‐seasonal changes in surface O₃ and NO_x concentrations were explicated with complex atmospheric chemistry, boundary layer dynamics, and local meteorology. In addition, nocturnal chemistry of NO_x played a decisive role in the formation of O₃ during day time. Mean BC mass concentration in winter (10.92 µg m^?3) was high during morning hours. Heterogeneous chemistry of BC on O₃ destruction and NO_x formation was elucidated. Apart from these local observations, long‐range transport of trace gases and BC aerosols were evidenced from air mass back trajectories. Further, statistical modeling was performed to predict O₃ using multi‐linear regression method, which resulted in 91% of the overall variance.     

IDOAS: A new monitoring technique to study the 2D distribution of volcanic gas emissions

Imaging Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (IDOAS) is an optical remote-sensing method using scattered sunlight as light source. It combines a “pushbroom” imaging spectrometer with the DOAS technique and thus allows imaging two-dimensional trace gas distributions, e.g., in volcanic plumes. The highly sensitive and specific detection of many trace gases simultaneously (specific molecules, not just elements, e.g. SO₂, BrO, NO₂, O₃, HCHO, etc.) is possible, and the temporal and spatial variation of these gases can be measured. The IDOAS system presented here enables the taking of two-dimensional images of trace gas distributions in a volcanic plume with a spatial resolution of 100 pixels horizontally × 64 pixels vertically, each with a field of view of 0.087° in horizontal and 0.208° in vertical directions. Therefore, IDOAS provides useful information about the chemical composition and chemical variability in a volcanic plume and allows studying plume dispersal and chemical transformations. The technique was applied to map the SO₂ distribution in the plume of Mt. Etna volcano for the first time in October 2003.     

Ozone Weekend Effect Analysis in Three European Urban Areas

This paper aims to apply statistical procedures to analyse the ozone weekend effect (OWE) in three European urban areas: Lisbon, Oporto and London. Seasonal variations of surface ozone (O₃) and total oxidant species (O_x) concentrations are presented. The studied period was from January 2007 to December 2009. The O₃ annual average profile in London was significantly different from the ones achieved for Lisbon and Oporto, due to the high emissions of nitrogen oxides and low temperatures (associated with low solar radiations). The influence of nitrogen oxides in atmospheric chemistry of London was analysed by linear correlations between O₃ concentrations and NO₂/NO ratio. High values during almost all period showed that O₃ concentrations are mainly influenced by NO? NO₂? O₃ chemical reaction. On the other hand, the linear correlations between O₃ and NO₂ concentrations only presented positive values in Lisbon and Oporto. This behaviour is associated with photo‐dissociation of NO₂, producing O₃ during the spring and summer periods. Additionally, cluster analysis was applied to group the days of week according the correspondent O₃ behaviour. The weekend and some weekdays (immediately after or before) were grouped in the same cluster, showing that OWE occurs in all urban areas selected in this study. These findings suggest that the applied statistical procedures should be used to analyse the OWE and that the causes for the different O₃ behaviours during the week may be influenced by meteorological variables.     

Monitoring air pollution in China from geostationary satellite: A synthetic study using simulated observations

We simulated geostationary satellite observations to assess the potential for high spatial-and temporal-resolution monitoring of air pollution in China with a focus on tropospheric ozone(O_3), nitrogen dioxide(NO_2), sulfur dioxide(SO_2), and formaldehyde(HCHO). Based on the capabilities and parameters of the payloads onboard sun-synchronous satellites, we simulated the observed spectrum based on a radiative transfer model using a geostationary satellite model. According to optimal estimation theory, we analyzed the sensitivities and retrieval uncertainties of the main parameters of the instrument for the target trace gases. Considering the retrieval error requirements of each trace gas, we determined the major instrument parameter values(e.g., observation channel, spectral resolution, and signal-to-noise ratio). To evaluate these values, retrieval simulation was performed based on the three-dimensional distribution of the atmospheric components over China using an atmospheric chemical transportation model. As many as 90% of the experiments met the retrieval requirements for all target gases. The retrieval precision of total-column and stratospheric O_3 was 2%. In addition, effective retrieval of all trace gases could be achieved at solar zenith angles larger than 70°. Therefore, the geostationary satellite observation and instrument parameters provided herein can be used in air pollution monitoring in China. This study offers a theoretical basis and simulation tool for improving the design of instruments onboard geostationary satellites.     

Investigating Correlations and Variations of Air Pollutant Concentrations under Conditions of Rapid Industrialization – Kocaeli (1987–2009)

In this study, it was aimed to characterize temporal variations of air pollutants for determining contribution to pollution episodes and to obtain correlations between these pollutants. With this aim we used data analysis for measured sulfur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM, black fume and PM10), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), and non‐methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) recorded in Kocaeli, one of the most industrilizated cities of Turkey. Pollutant concentrations were the results of continuous and semi‐automatic measurements. Semi‐automatic measurements of SO₂ and PM (black fume) were enclosing period from 1987 to 2008 whereas continuous monitoring of all pollutants included years of 2007–2009. In the first stage of the study daily, monthly, annual, and seasonal variations of pollution were researched. Annual average concentrations were compared with limits set by Air Quality Protection Regulation (AQPR), Air Quality Evaluation and Management Regulation (AQEMR), World Health Organization (WHO), European Union (EU), and National Ambient Air Quality Standards (USEPA). In the following stage relationships between pollutants such as NO₂–O₃, NO_x–CO, NO_x–NMHC, and NO_x–SO₂ were investigated and correlation coefficients were determined as 0.87, 0.56, 0.51, and 0.69, respectively. R² values of regression models developed from these correlations were 0.78, 0.56, 0.34, and 0.72, respectively. Vehicle density of the traffic was evaluated with NO_x–O₃ emissions and decrease was seen in NO_x emissions due to decreasing vehicle density at weekends whereas O₃ concentrations increased. These correlations enable prediction of the parameters that cannot be measured which is important for providing improvement in early warning systems.     

Chemical Composition of Dew Resulting from Radiative Cooling at a Semi-arid Site in Agra, India

Dew samples were collected between October 2007 and February 2008 from a suburban site in Agra. pH, conductivity, major inorganic ions (F^?, Cl^?, NO ₃ ^? , SO ₄ ^2? , Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and NH ₄ ⁺ ), and some trace metals (Cr, Sn, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, Fe, Si, Al, V, and Cu) were determined to study the chemistry of dew water. The mean pH was 7.3, and the samples exhibited high ionic concentrations. Dew chemistry suggested both natural and anthropogenic influences, with acidity being neutralized by atmospheric ammonia and soil constituents. Ion deposition flux varied from 0.25 to 3.0?neq?m^?2?s^?1, with maximum values for Ca²⁺ followed by NH ₄ ⁺ , Mg²⁺, SO ₄ ^2? , Cl^?, NO ₃ ^? , Na⁺, K⁺, and F^?. Concentrations of trace metals varied from 0.13 to 48?μg?l^?1 with maximum concentrations of Si and minimum concentration of Cd. Correlation analysis suggested their contributions from both crustal and anthropogenic sources.     

Background concentrations of photochemically active trace constituents in the stratosphere and upper troposphere

Summary High resolution absorption spectroscopy can be used for obtaining very small background concentrations or very low upper limits of trace constituents, particularly from measurements inQ-branches of fundamental vibration-rotation bands. As examples, the results of a search for NH₃ and SO₂ in the Vermande and Dionne Mont-Louis solar spectra will be reported. The relative concentration of NH₃ is very much lower above the Pyrenees than the generally accepted minimum background concentrations near sea-level.     

A simple method for the collection and analysis of volcanic gas samples

Investigations into the chemistry of volcanic gases depend on the availability of complete and accurate analyses of volcanic exhalations. The wide variety of sampling and analysis methods hitherto used, often supplying only partial analyses of low precision, made intercomparison, and thus a systematic study of volcanic gases, difficult. With the method proposed here, complete volcanic gas samples are obtained permitting the accurate determination of all major species by standard analytical methods without the need for highly specialised ancillary equipment. The samples are collected in evacuated 300 ml pyrex flasks through titanium tubes deeply inserted into the gas vent. Two types of flask are used, a single compartment flask allowing the easy determination of the major constituents and containing 50 ml 4 N NaOH, and a double compartment flask for the separate analysis of the sulfur species and containing 25 ml 0.1 N As₂O₃ in 1 N HClO₄ in the first, and 50 ml 4 N NaOH in the second compartment. Non-absorbed gases are determined by gas chromatography, the rest by standard analytical procedures. The determination of H₂O, CO₂, SO₂, SO₂, S₂, H₂S, HCl, HF, H₂, N₂, O₂, CH₄, CO and NH₂ is described.     

Untersuchung über die Verteilung von Spurengasen in der freien Atmosphäre

Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt die Ergebnisse von Messflügen zur Bestimmung der Konzentrationsverteilung von Spurengasen in der freien Atmosphäre. Auf Grund dieser Aufstiege war es erstmals möglich, den Gehalt der Atmosphäre an Schwefeldioxyd und Stickstoffdioxyd bis in Höhen von 6000 m zu erfassen. Die gewonnene mittelere Konzentrations-verteilung bietet die Basis zu Abschätzungen über den Haushalt und die mittlere Verweilzeit von SO₂ und NO₂ in der Troposphäre.

---

Summary This paper deals with the results of aircraft ascents for the measurement of the vertical distribution of atmospheric trace gases in the free atmosphere. The aircraft ascents permitted for the first time to measure the SO₂- and NO₂-concentration up to 6000 m. On the basis of the average distribution assumptions on the tropospheric budget of SO₂ and NO₂ as well as on the average tropospheric residence time of these gases were made.

     

Pollutant Concentrations in Mountain River Waters in the Upper Baksan Area (Prielbrus’e National Park) and Their Seasonal Variations

Materials of expedition studies in 2013 in the Prielbrus’e National Park were used to analyze the concentrations of a wide range of pollutants (SO₄^2-, Cl^?, Na⁺, K⁺, F^?, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ni, NO₃^-, NH₄⁺) in the water of mountain rivers forming the main artery of the region, the Baksan R. The analyzed data characterize seasonal variations in pollutant concentrations at seven sampling sections and their dynamics along the river down to the 35th km from the source in different seasons.     

Chemistry of Forest Fires and Regional Haze with Emphasis on Southeast Asia

— The current state of knowledge regarding the chemistry of forest fires and regional haze is reviewed. More than 100 compounds have been identified in wood smoke and many of these have also been observed in field studies. Products of biomass combustion can have different environmental effects: CO₂ and CH₄ may contribute to global warming, NO_x and SO₂ could contribute to rainwater acidity, whereas smoke particles and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) could affect human health. Also, photochemical reactions of primary emissions from biomass fires can lead to the production of secondary pollutants such as O₃. Regional haze episodes caused by forest fires have occurred in SE Asia on several occasions during the 1990s and the reported studies of these episodes are reviewed. Only total suspended particles (TSP) were determined in the earlier studies, and more comprehensive chemical investigations have only emerged during the more recent episodes, notably those of 1997 and 1998. To date, most of the measurements have centred on criteria pollutants (SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃ and PM₁₀), however, other pollutants (e.g., VOCs, PAHs) have also been determined in certain studies. Rainwater analyses suggest that forest fires do not have a major acidifying effect because dissolved acidic gases (e.g., SO₂) are neutralised by alkaline substances (e.g., Ca, Mg, K) that are also emitted by forest fires. There is a need for further laboratory and field studies in order to investigate important pollutant transformation mechanisms.     

Health impact assessment of marine emissions in Pearl River Delta region

Global marine vessels emissions are adversely affecting human health particularly in southeast Asia. But health burdens from both ocean- and river-going vessels in Pearl River Delta (PRD) regions are not quantified. We estimated the potential health impacts using pooled relative risks of mortality and hospital admissions in China, and the model derived concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM₁₀), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ozone (O₃) due to vessels emissions. SO₂ concentrations due to marine emissions in Hong Kong were 13.6 μgm^?3 compared with 0.7 μgm^?3 in PRD regions that were far from the marine vessels. In PRD regions, the estimated annual numbers (per million people) of excess deaths from all natural causes and hospital admissions from cardiorespiratory causes attributable to SO₂, NO₂, O₃ and PM₁₀ combined from marine emissions were 45 and 265 respectively. Marine emission control measures could contribute a large reduction in mortality and hospital admissions in PRD regions especially in Hong Kong.     

Chemistry and metal contents of magmatic gases: the new Tolbachik volcanoes case (Kamchatka)

The gaseous products of new Tolbachik volcanoes were studied during 1975 to 1977 throughout all eruptive stages and during the post eruptive activity. In investigations the northern break-out gases emitted during the eruption from the moving and consolidated lava flows there have been detected H₂O (the main component), H₂, HF, HCl, SO₂ and H₂S, CO₂, CO, NH₃, CH₄ and other hydrocarbons, NH₄Cl predominated in compositions of condensates and subtimates on lava flows and the most characteristic microcomponents were Zn, Cu, Pb, Sn, Ag and others. Sampling of gases and condensates at the southern break-out was conducted immediately from the flowing melt. In gases there have been detected H₂O (98 mol. %). HCl and H₂ (0.9 mol. % each) as well as HF, SO₂, H₂S, CO₂ and in small quantities O₂ and N₂, Gases reached the equilibrium state atT andP sampling and were characteristic of gas composition of the southern break-out magma. HCl, HF and H₂SO₄ were predominant during condensate and sublimate mineralization. The major raicrocomponents were represented by Pt, Sb, As, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Co and others. Comparison of compositions of gases and of products of their reactions at the northern and at the southern break-outs allows us to assume the presence of the deeper magma source at the northern break-out and of shallow magma source at the southern break-out.     

Changes in Water Hydrochemistry in Bays of the Bratsk Reservoir Caused by Forest Harvesting Operations

For the first time, the results of studying the hydrochemical characteristics of bays in the Bratsk Reservoir, subject to the effect of forest harvesting operations are given. The obtained data include the concentrations of NO₃^?, NO₂^?, NH₄⁺, PO₄^-3, SiO₂, phenols, oil products, and organic matter and the oxygen regime of water in the bays. The concentration and distribution in water of biogenic elements and O₂-typical of wood decay processes-demonstrate the high self-purification capacity of ecosystems in the majority of bays. At the same time, water of some bays shows signs of eutrophication and high concentrations of phenols and oil products.     

The Precipitation Chemistry over Central Bohemia: Attempt to Estimate the Sources and Pathways

An attempt to indicate the sources and pathways of selected chemical substances in precipitation over central Bohemia was accomplished with help of bulk samples, collected in a forested rural landscape approx. 30 km SE from Prague, capital of the Czech Republic. Samples have been collected monthly throughout the 1990s. They were analyzed to determine the concentration of selected major cations and anions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄ ⁺, SO₄ ^2-, NO₃ ^-, Cl^-), as well as several minor and trace elements (Al, As, Be, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Sr, Zn, F^-).Set of the bulk samples shows strong mutual correlation of the main acidifiers - compounds of N, S (and F). Good correlation occurs also at the typical lithogenic elements Al, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Sr, and the typical elements originating from the flue gases of the combustion chambers burning low quality brown coal - As, (Be), Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn. The only strong correlation of Cl with Na (and Mg) indicates that majority of these elements originates from the oceanic spray. The content of pollutants in precipitation depends on the air masses types and on the rout of their approach to the sampling site. The typing of synoptic situations was employed for the determination of the air masses types and routs and of the corresponding fronts and precipitation fields.     

Snow pollution in Lake Baikal water area in nearby land areas

The extent of the effect of technogenic sources in the Baikal Natural Territory on Lake Baikal water area and coastal zone is assessed. Regional pollution from sources remote from the lake migrates over tens of kilometers in accordance with wind rose and transforms into local in the water protection zone of Lake Baikal. Snow pollution in lake water area has been recorded near the coastal populated localities Listvyanka, Kultuk, Baikal’sk, Slyudyanka, Ust’-Barguzin, Severobaikal’sk, Nizhneangarsk, and at Selenga R. mouth and found to have a local character. The southern depression ranks first in terms of the input of NO₂, NO₃, NH₄, PO₄, F, Al, Na, Ba, Mo, Mn, Pb, Cu, Zn, Sr, Hg, and oil products onto lake water area through the atmosphere. However, larger amounts of SO₄, H₂CO₃, Cl, Ca, Mg, and K falls onto the northern depression, and more Be, V, Cr, and Co falls onto the middle part, because of the operation of coastal enterprises, boiler-houses, TPPs, stove heating, motor-car emissions, and natural transport of dust in low-snow areas. Data on the past 15 years show the pollution to drop by half in the late 1990s and early 2000s because of industrial decline. However, a small increase in regional pollution by individual components could be seen in the recent 5 years.     

A theoretical interpretation of ion composition measured on board the ‘Active’ satellite in the European sector during April 10-12, 1990 geomagnetic storm

Ion composition measurements on board the ACTIVE satellite during the recovery phase of a strong geomagnetic storm of 10–12 April 1990 revealed extremely high concentrations (up to 10³ cm⁻³) of the NO⁺, O⁺₂, N⁺₂ molecular ions in the topside F2-region of the European high-latitude zone. Concentrations of O⁺, N⁺, He⁺, H⁺ light ions were slightly decreased relative to prestorm quite conditions. Theoretical calculations were used to analyze the observed variations in ion concentration. Increased neutral temperature and [O₂], [N₂] are shown to be the main reasons for the observed ion concentration variations.     

Volcanic gases and sublimates from Showashinzan

Volcanic gases from Showashinzan are qualitatively the same as those liberated from igneous rocks when they are heated in vacuum. Their main components are H₂O, CO₂, and H₂. Then follow HCl, HF, N₂, SO₂, H₂S, S, CH₄, CO, Ar, Si, B, Mg, Na, K, Ca, Al, Fe, P, Br, NH₃, As, Zn, Sr, Ba, Cu, Pb, Sn, Sb, Bi, Ge, Ag, Cr, Ni, Mo, Rn, Ra, etc. They come through fumaroles of high temperature (～750°C.). Metallic compounds deposit as sublimates around the outlet of fumaroles. They are fractionated there according to their thermodynamic properties. When the temperature of gases falls, heavy metal elements deposit before reaching the surface of the earth. Ra is among them. Owing to the contribution of Ra thus depositted, Rn content of vapor is larger in low temperature fumaroles than in high temperature ones. Chemical compounds of H, C, N, O, and S vary their composition according to the condition of temperature and pressure. Sulfur exists as SO₂ more than H₂S. As the temperature of gases falls, SO₂ and H₂ decrease and H₂S increases. Mutual relation among them is ruled by the chemical equilibrium: SO₂+3H₂=H₂S+2H₂O. The structure of Showashinzan is not simple. Some deviations from the general rule are explained in connection with ground water.     

Hydrochemical Analyses and Evaluation of Groundwater Resources of North Jordan

The hydrochemical analyses of twenty-three springs were used to determine the properties and types of groundwater of the Tertiary-Quaternary Aquifer of northern Jordan. The result shows that the geological formation influences the quality of the investigated groundwater more than the anthropogenic factors. The water of the Quaternary-Tertiary aquifer is enriched in Ca⁺⁺ due to the dissolution of the nearby carbonate rocks. The investigated water has a low EC values with Ca(Na)-HCO₃ water type. Most springs belong to this hydrochemical facies except Malka. Groundwater in the Malka wells has high salinity with NaCl waters and a strong Ca(Mg)-HCO₃ facies (900 to 1000 mg/l TDS). The area long-term hydrochemical data have been also evaluated; general trend of increase of the analyzed ion was observed. Bicarbonate represents the most abundant anion in the studied water, which exceeds the permissible limits. Nitrates (NO ₃ ^? ) also exceed the permissible limit and are the most common contaminant in the investigated water. Data on dissolved major and trace elements (K⁺, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl^?, SO ₄ ^2? , Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb) in the investigated water revealed that the concentrations lie within the natural background range. The positive correlation values between various ions indicate that most of ions come from same lithological sources. According to the residual sodium carbonate, and EC values, the studied springs are suitable for agricultural purposes.