Fragility analysis of low‐rise masonry in‐filled reinforced concrete buildings by a coefficient‐based spectral acceleration method

This study presents a seismic fragility analysis of low‐rise masonry in‐filled (MI) reinforced concrete (RC) buildings using a proposed coefficient‐based spectral acceleration method. The coefficient‐based method, without requiring any complicated finite element analysis, is a simplified procedure for assessing the spectral acceleration demand (or capacity) of buildings subjected to earthquakes. This paper begins with a calibration of the proposed coefficient‐based method for low‐rise MI RC buildings using published experimental results obtained from shaking table tests. Spectral acceleration‐based fragility curves for low‐rise MI RC buildings under various inter‐story drift limits are then constructed using the calibrated coefficient‐based method. A comparison of the experimental and estimated results indicates that the simplified coefficient‐based method can provide good approximations of the spectral accelerations at peak loads of low‐rise MI RC buildings, if a proper set of drift‐related factors and initial fundamental periods of structures are used. Moreover, the fragility curves constructed using the coefficient‐based method can provide a satisfactory vulnerability evaluation for low‐rise MI RC buildings under a given performance level. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fragility curves for reinforced concrete buildings to seismically triggered slow-moving slides

Probabilistic fragility functions have been developed for low-rise, reinforced concrete buildings subjected to earthquake triggered slow-moving slides, applying a recently published methodology by the same authors [5] (Fotopoulou and Pitilakis, 2012). We performed an extensive numerical parametric study considering different idealized slope configurations, soil and geological settings, as well as distances of the structure to the slope's crest and foundation typologies. Various features of the structural damage are explored, highlighting trends on the building's behavior to the permanent co-seismic slope deformations. The proposed generalized probabilistic fragility curves have been developed as a function of the expected outcrop peak ground acceleration (PGA) as provided by modern seismic codes, i.e. EC8, or the induced permanent slope ground displacements (PGD) for different slope angles, water table level and soil type, foundation typology and seismic design code. Detailed sensitivity analyses of the above parameters, reveal their relative importance for the vulnerability analysis and the quantitative risk assessment of low-rise RC buildings subjected to earthquake triggered slow-moving slides.     

Observational fragility functions for residential stone masonry buildings in Nepal

This paper outlines the seismic vulnerability of rural stone masonry buildings affected by the 2015 Gorkha earthquake sequence. Summary of field observation is presented first and empirical fragility curves are developed from the detailed damage assessment data from 603 villages in central, eastern and western Nepal. Fragility curves are developed on the basis of 665,515 building damage cases collected during the post-earthquake detailed damage assessment campaign conducted by Government of Nepal. Two sets of fragility functions are derived using peak ground acceleration and spectral acceleration at 0.3 s as the intensity measures. The sum of the results highlights that stone masonry buildings in Nepal are highly vulnerable even in the case of low to moderate ground shaking. The results further indicate that in the case of strong to major earthquakes, most of the stone masonry buildings in Nepal would sustain severe damage or collapse.     

Empirical seismic fragility for the precast RC industrial buildings damaged by the 2012 Emilia (Italy) earthquakes

The paper analyses the seismic fragility of precast reinforced concrete buildings using observational damage data gathered after the 2012 Emilia earthquakes that struck Northern Italy. The damage level in 1890 buildings was collected, classified and examined. Damage matrices were then evaluated, and finally, empirical fragility curves were fitted using Bayesian regression. Building damage was classified using a six‐level scale derived from EMS‐98. The completeness of the database and the spatial distribution of the buildings investigated were analysed using cadastral data as a reference. The intensity of the ground motion was quantified by the maximum horizontal peak ground acceleration, which was obtained from ShakeMaps. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A capacity curve model for confined clay brick infills

Experimental studies have proven that clay brick infills, confined with carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) in reinforced concrete (RC) frames, have some advantages in terms of stiffness, strength, energy dissipation capability and damage intensity. Owing to these advantages, existing infill walls in RC frames may be retrofitted with CFRP strips, especially in low-rise buildings in earthquake-prone areas. There is a gap in the literature concerning their behavior model, for use in structural analysis. A piecewise linear capacity curve model called “DUVAR” is proposed here, which estimates the envelope of force-vs.-displacement hysteresis, depending on the data compiled from the literature and the completed experimental studies. A nonlinear shear spring element is utilized in the model to represent the bare and retrofitted infills. The ultimate shear strength and the corresponding displacement, the ratio of cracking stiffness to initial stiffness, the ratio of ultimate strength to cracking strength, and the ductility ratio are the five key parameters of the model. The model is validated against the experimental results of two sovereign studies. Finally, the model is employed in the performance evaluation of an existing three-story RC building to exemplify its straightforward application.     

Seismic fragility assessment of RC frame structure designed according to modern Chinese code for seismic design of buildings

Following several damaging earthquakes in China,research has been devoted to find the causes of the collapse of reinforced concrete(RC) building sand studying the vulnerability of existing buildings.The Chinese Code for Seismic Design of Buildings(CCSDB) has evolved over time,however,there is still reported earthquake induced damage of newly designed RC buildings.Thus,to investigate modern Chinese seismic design code,three low-,mid-and high-rise RC frames were designed according to the 2010 CCSDB and the corresponding vulnerability curves were derived by computing a probabilistic seismic demand model(PSDM).The PSDM was computed by carrying out nonlinear time history analysis using thirty ground motions obtained from the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center.Finally,the PSDM was used to generate fragility curves for immediate occupancy,significant damage,and collapse prevention damage levels.Results of the vulnerability assessment indicate that the seismic demands on the three different frames designed according to the 2010 CCSDB meet the seismic requirements and are almost in the same safety level.     

A hybrid method for the vulnerability assessment of R/C and URM buildings

The methodology followed by the Aristotle University (AUTh) team for the vulnerability assessment of reinforced concrete (R/C) and unreinforced masonry (URM) structures is presented. The paper focuses on the derivation of vulnerability (fragility) curves in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), as well as spectral displacement (s _d), and also includes the estimation of capacity curves, for several R/C and URM building types. The vulnerability assessment methodology is based on the hybrid approach developed at AUTh, which combines statistical data with appropriately processed (utilising repair cost models) results from nonlinear dynamic or static analyses, that permit extrapolation of statistical data to PGA’s and/or spectral displacements for which no data are available. The statistical data used herein are from earthquake-damaged greek buildings. An extensive numerical study is carried out, wherein a large number of building types (representing most of the common typologies in S. Europe) are modelled and analysed. Vulnerability curves for several damage states are then derived using the aforementioned hybrid approach. These curves are subsequently used in combination with the mean spectrum of the Microzonation study of Thessaloniki as the basis for the derivation of new vulnerability curves involving spectral quantities. Pushover curves are derived for all building types, then reduced to standard capacity curves, and can easily be used together with the S _d fragility curves as an alternative for developing seismic risk scenarios.     

Spectral and fragility evaluations of retrofitted structures through strength reduction and enhanced damping

A retrofit procedure for existing buildings called the "weakening and damping technique" (WED) is presented in this paper. Weakening of structures can limit the maximum response accelerations during severe ground motions, but leads to an increase in the displacements or inter-story drifts. Added damping by using viscous dampers, on the other hand, reduces the inter-story drifts and has no significant effect on total accelerations, when structures behave inelastically. The weakening and damping technique addresses the two main causes for both structural and nonstructural damage in structures. The weakening retrofit is particularly suitable for structures that have overstressed components and weak brittle components. In this paper, the advantages of the WeD are verified by nonlinear dynamic analysis and simplified spectral approach that has been modified to fit structures with additional damping devices. A hospital structure located in the San Femando Valley in California is selected as a case study. The results from both analyses show that the retrofit solution is feasible to reduce both structural acceleration and displacement. A sensitivity analysis is also carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the retrofitting method using different combinations of performance thresholds in accelerations and displacements through fragility analysis.     

按现行规范设计的Ⅷ度区RC框架结构的倒塌性能评估

选取按照现行规范设计的既有建筑进行有限元建模,考虑地震动的不确定性对其进行大量增量动力分析(IDA),得到模型的IDA曲线簇。在此基础上对其进行地震需求概率分析和概率抗震能力分析,拟合得到结构的易损性曲线,据此对结构的倒塌概率进行定量评估,并比较基于非线性分析与性能评估软件PERFORM-3D的纤维模型和塑性铰模型的分析结果。结果表明:按照我国现行规范设计的钢筋混凝土(RC)框架结构,在预期的罕遇地震作用下倒塌概率较小,可满足"大震不倒"的要求;基于PERFORM-3D的截面纤维模型所得的RC框架结构,经非线性分析所得的倒塌概率相对保守,安全储备更高。     

Effect of depth of soil stratum on performance of buildings for site-specific earthquakes

Towards formulating guidelines for performance evaluation of buildings to site-specific earthquakes, studies are reported in literature on the effect of various critical parameters. No study is, however, reported on the effect of depth of soil stratum. In this paper, a methodology is proposed and applied for performance evaluation of buildings for site-specific earthquakes including depth of soil stratum as a parameter. The methodology integrates independent procedures meant for performance evaluation of buildings and site-specific seismic analysis. Application of the proposed methodology enables to determine performance point of a building in terms of inelastic displacement and base shear. Numerical application of the methodology is demonstrated using the particulars of Delhi region. Two typical RC buildings (B1 and B2) with significantly different inelastic behaviour, assumed to be located on soil depths ranging from 10 to 200 m are chosen for the application study. Capacity spectra of the buildings are generated from nonlinear static analysis. Studies indicate that for building B1, with elasto-plastic behaviour, the depth of soil stratum strongly influences demand on inelastic displacement compared to that on inelastic base shear. For building B2, with continuously varying inelastic behaviour, the depth of soil stratum is observed to have significant influence on both the inelastic base shear as well as inelastic displacement. Responses of the buildings are compared with that obtained based on design spectrum of Indian seismic code. For both the cases, inelastic displacements as well as inelastic base shears are underestimated by Indian seismic code for certain depths of soil stratum. Proposed methodology enables the calculation of realistic values of inelastic base shear and corresponding displacement of a building for site-specific earthquakes by considering the actual characteristics of soil stratum.     

Force and Displacement Based Vulnerability Assessment for Traditional Buildings

Vulnerability assessment for historic buildings is usually carried out using capacity based approaches and prediction of losses is obtained by using normal or lognormal distributions for expected levels of macro seismic intensity or peak ground accelerations. Several authors have outlined the limitations of such approach. The paper presents a method to correlate analysis of seismic vulnerability using a failure mechanisms approach to observed in situ damage. The various aspects of the procedure are highlighted with application to a real case. It is shown how once the typologies within a sample have been identified, fragility curves for each of them can be derived and predictive cumulative damage curve obtained for samples for which direct survey of damage data is lacking. Finally the paper shows how the failure mechanism approach can be used to derive damage scenarios both in terms of spectral acceleration and spectral displacement     

Generation of fragility curves for Turkish masonry buildings considering in‐plane failure modes

This study focuses on the seismic safety evaluation of masonry buildings in Turkey for in‐plane failure modes using fragility curves. Masonry buildings are classified and a set of fragility curves are generated for each class. The major structural parameters in the classification of masonry buildings are considered as the number of stories, load‐bearing wall material, regularity in plan and the arrangement of walls (required length, openings in walls, etc.), in accordance with the observations from previous earthquakes and field databases. The fragility curves are generated by using time history (for demand) and pushover (for capacity) analyses. From the generated sets of fragility curves, it is observed that the damage state probabilities are significantly influenced from the number of stories and wall material strength. In the second stage of the study, the generated fragility curves are employed to estimate the damage of masonry buildings in Dinar after the 1995 earthquake. The estimated damage by fragility information is compared with the inspected visual damage as assessed from the Damage Evaluation Form. For the quantification of fragility‐based damage, a single‐valued index, named as ‘vulnerability score’ (VS), is proposed. There seems to be a fair agreement between the two damage measures. In addition to this, decisions regarding the repair or demolition of masonry buildings in Dinar due to visual damage inspection are on comparable grounds with the relative measure obtained from VS of the same buildings. Hence, the fragility‐based procedure can provide an alternative for the seismic safety evaluation of masonry buildings in Turkey. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Curvature ductility of columns and structural displacement ductility in RC frame structures subjected to ground motions

This paper examined the statistical relationship between the curvature ductility demands of columns and the global displacement ductility demands of reinforced concrete (RC) frame structures when subjected to earthquakes. Elements with a designated moment–curvature relationship were adopted for both beam and column elements, and five-story and ten-story RC frame numerical structures were established. Using pushover analysis and earthquake nonlinear dynamic time-history analysis, the maximum global displacement ductility demands of the structure and the maximum curvature ductility demands of the columns were determined. The effects of the spectral acceleration and the strong column factor on ductility demands were analyzed, and the quantitative relationship between the curvature ductility demands of columns and the global displacement ductility demands of frame structures were established. Moreover, the validity of the established relationship was further tested and verified through a real-world application. The results show that the maximum curvature ductility demands of the columns and the maximum displacement ductility demands of the structure were positively associated with the spectral acceleration and negatively associated with the strong column factor. A proposed first-degree linear relationship between curvature ductility of columns and structural displacement ductility in RC frame structures with two parameters was obtained by curve fitting, while considering the effect of the strong column factor. The model was highly correlated with the sampling analysis data. Applying the empirical model established in this study is a simple and effective means to guide the design of ductility and the assessment of RC frame columns.     

Residual drift spectra for RC bridge columns subjected to near-fault earthquakes

Permanent displacement of a bridge column can be directly measured during the inspection after near-fault earthquakes.However,the engineer needs to estimate the expected residual drift at the design stage to determine if the bridge seismic performance is satisfactory.The most direct method to estimate the residual displacement is nonlinear response history analysis,which is time consuming and cumbersome.Alternatively,an attractive but indirect method is generating estimated residual displacement spectra that depend on displacement ductility demand,column period,site conditions,and earthquake characteristics.Given the period and the expected displacement ductility demand for the column,the residual drift response spectra curves can be utilized to estimate the residual drift demand.Residual drift spectra that are applicable to RC bridge columns in different parts of the United States were developed based on nonlinear response history analyses using a comprehensive collection of recorded and synthetic near-fault ground motions and were linked to one-second spectral acceleration(S1)of the AASHTO maps.It was also found that the residual drift ratio is below one percent when S1 is less than 0.6 g.     

地震作用下低层建筑砌体结构的动力特性分析

传统低层建筑砌体结构动力特性分析中,易受到外界环境的干扰,砌体结构的完整性欠缺,导致动力特性分析的准确度较低。为提高低层建筑砌体结构的抗震性能,提出地震作用下低层建筑砌体结构的动力特性分析方法。首先利用低层建筑砌体结构反应自功率谱,完成砌体结构的自振频率辨认;然后通过941B型超低频率测振仪测试自振频率,筛出振动波形中噪声干扰的区域,获取时域波形和频域波形;最后依据时域波形和频域波形塑造低层建筑砌体三维精细化模型,在该模型基础上,通过子空间迭代算法获取低层建筑砌体结构的模拟结果,分析地震作用下芯柱、圈梁等构造措施对建筑砌体结构动力特征的影响,完成砌体结构的动力特性分析。实验结果表明,利用所提方法对地震作用下低层建筑砌体结构的动力特性进行分析,得到的分析结果准确度较高。     

Sliding fragility of block‐type non‐structural components. Part 1: Unrestrained components

Motivated by the development of performance‐based design guidelines with emphasis on both structural and non‐structural systems, this paper focuses on seismic vulnerability assessment of block‐type unrestrained non‐structural components under sliding response on the basis of seismic inputs specified by current seismic codes. Two sliding‐related failure modes are considered: excessive relative displacement and excessive absolute acceleration. It is shown that an upper bound for the absolute acceleration response can be assessed deterministically, for which a simple yet completely general equation is proposed. In contrast, fragility curves are proposed as an appropriate tool to evaluate the excessive relative displacement failure mode. Sample fragility curves developed through Monte‐Carlo simulations show that fragility estimates obtained without taking into account vertical base accelerations can be significantly unconservative, especially for relatively large values of the coefficient of friction. It is also found that reasonable estimates of relative displacement response at stories other than the ground in multistorey buildings cannot in general be obtained by simply scaling the ground acceleration to the peak acceleration at the corresponding storey. Failure modes considered in this study are found to be essentially independent of each other, a property that greatly simplifies assessment of conditional limit states. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

新疆喀什原场地地震动频谱特性研究

2020年1月19日和2020年2月21日在新疆喀什地区先后发生M_S6.4和M_S5.1地震,针对新疆强震动台网收集到的128条强震动记录进行统计分析,研究2次地震记录的幅值及反应谱特性,并与两个现行规范设计反应谱进行对比,结果表明：(1)震级相同时,震中距越小加速度反应谱越大,且加速度反应谱衰减速度越慢;震中距相同时,震级越大加速度反应谱越大,且加速度反应谱衰减速度越慢;(2)震级越大加速度谱值、速度谱值、位移谱值越大;(3)M_S6.4、M_S5.1地震波加速度反应谱及其平均值曲线相近,与我国现行规范加速度反应谱相比差别很大。建议在新疆喀什地区采用基于当地强震记录的加速度反应谱进行结构抗震设计。     

Experimental and numerical evaluation of the fundamental period of undamaged and damaged RC framed buildings

This paper deals with the period evaluation of Reinforced Concrete (RC) framed buildings in elastic, yield and severely damaged states. Firstly, period-height relationships either reported in the literature, or obtained from both numerical simulations (eigenvalue analyses) and experimental measurements (ambient vibration analyses) have been examined and compared. Structural types representing low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise RC buildings without earthquake resistant design, widely present in the Italian and European built environment, have been studied. Results have shown high differences between numerical and experimental period values. Period elongation (stiffness degradation) during and after strong ground shaking has been also examined based on results from experimental in situ and laboratory tests performed on some RC framed building structures which suffered moderate-heavy damage. Some comments on the relationship between damage level and period elongation are reported.     

Seismic fragility assessment of low-rise stone masonry buildings

Many historic buildings in old urban centers in Eastern Canada are made of stone masonry reputed to be highly vulnerable to seismic loads.Seismic risk assessment of stone masonry buildings is therefore the first step in the risk mitigation process to provide adequate planning for retrofit and preservation of historical urban centers.This paper focuses on development of analytical displacement-based fragility curves reflecting the characteristics of existing stone masonry buildings in Eastern Canada.The old historic center of Quebec City has been selected as a typical study area.The standard fragility analysis combines the inelastic spectral displacement,a structure-dependent earthquake intensity measure,and the building damage state correlated to the induced building displacement.The proposed procedure consists of a three-step development process:(1) mechanics-based capacity model,(2) displacement-based damage model and(3) seismic demand model.The damage estimation for a uniform hazard scenario of 2% in 50 years probability of exceedance indicates that slight to moderate damage is the most probable damage experienced by these stone masonry buildings.Comparison is also made with fragility curves implicit in the seismic risk assessment tools Hazus and ELER.Hazus shows the highest probability of the occurrence of no to slight damage,whereas the highest probability of extensive and complete damage is predicted with ELER.This comparison shows the importance of the development of fragility curves specific to the generic construction characteristics in the study area and emphasizes the need for critical use of regional risk assessment tools and generated results.     

Seismic response analysis of an irregular base isolated building

This paper assesses the reliability of code-compliant linear and nonlinear dynamic analyses for irregular buildings with base isolation system (BIS). Comprehensive analyses are carried out for a case study comprising a large reinforced concrete multi-storey framed hospital with 327 high-damping rubber bearings. Spectral and time history (linear and nonlinear) analyses were performed on the three-dimensional (3D) finite element model (FEM) of the structure; simplified analyses were also conducted on single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems. It is found that, at damageability limit state, the values of maximum interstorey drifts (d/h) computed with spectral analyses on the three-dimensional FEM range between 1/6 and 1/10 of the code limit (d/h = 0.33%); thus more stringent code limits should be required for buildings with BISs. The maximum floor acceleration is reduced by about 70% with respect to the ground acceleration (free field site); the acceleration profile is uniform along the height of the multi-storey frame. Threshold values of floor accelerations to assess the seismic performance of equipments in buildings with BIS are lacking. At ultimate limit state (ULS), spectral analyses provide values of actions and deformations that are less conservative than those derived through time history analyses. To perform reliable dynamic analyses of base isolated buildings it is crucial to select natural earthquake ground motions compliant with the fundamental period of vibration of the structural system. Nevertheless, it is not straightforward to select adequate natural strong motions in the catalogues available world-wide; buildings incorporating BISs possess periods of vibration which are generally higher than 2.0 s. As a result, distant and high-magnitude earthquakes are effective for base isolated buildings; nevertheless, such earthquakes are scarce in the seismic databases. The outcomes of the present study also demonstrate that simplified linear analyses tend to provide estimates of the response quantities, displacements of base isolators and base shear of the superstructure, which can be reliably employed at preliminary design stage. Spectral analysis results of the 3D model tend to match those of the SDOF systems, even for irregular superstructure, provided that modal mass participating ratios are greater than 85–90%. The results of spectral analyses on both SDOF and three-dimensional FEM envelope the outcomes of linear time histories.