http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987111001125

<正>Greenstone belts of the eastern Dharwar Craton,India are reinterpreted as composite tectonostratigraphic terranes of accreted plume-derived and convergent margin-derived magmatic sequences based on new high-precision elemental data.The former are dominated by a komatiile plus Mg-tholeiitic basalt volcanic association,with deep water siliciclastic and banded iron formation(BIF) sedimentary rocks.Plumes melted at90 km under thin rifted continental lithosphere to preserve inlraoceanic and continental margin aspects.Associated alkaline basalts record subduction-recycling of Mesoarchean oceanic crust,incubated in the asthenosphere.and erupted coevally with Mg basalts from a heterogeneous mantle plume.Together.komaliites-Mg basalts-alkaline basalts plot along the Phanerozoic mantle array in Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb coordinate space,representing zoned plumes,establishing that these reservoirs were present in the Neoarchean mantle. Convergent margin magmatic associations are dominated by tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalts eompositionally similar to recent intraoceanic arcs.As well,boninitic flows sourced in extremely depleted mantle are present,and the association of arc basalts with Mg-andesites-Nb enriched basalts-adakites documented from Cenozoic arcs characterized by subduction of young(20 Ma),hot,oceanic lithosphere. Consequently.Cenozoic style "hot" subduction was operating in the Neoarchean.These diverse volcanic associations were assembled to give composite terranes in a subduction-accretion orogen at～2.1 Ga,coevally with a global accretionary orogen at ~2.7 Ga,and associated orogenic gold mineralization. Archean lithospheric mantle,distinctive in being thick,refractory,and buoyant,formed complementary to the accreted plume and convergent margin terranes.as migrating arcs captured thick plumeplateaus. and the refractory,low density.residue of plume melting coupled with accreted imbricated plume-arc crust.     

From oceanic plateaus to allochthonous terranes: Numerical modelling

Large segments of the continental crust are known to have formed through the amalgamation of oceanic plateaus and continental fragments. However, mechanisms responsible for terrane accretion remain poorly understood. We have therefore analysed the interactions of oceanic plateaus with the leading edge of the continental margin using a thermomechanical–petrological model of an oceanic-continental subduction zone with spontaneously moving plates. This model includes partial melting of crustal and mantle lithologies and accounts for complex rheological behaviour including viscous creep and plastic yielding. Our results indicate that oceanic plateaus may either be lost by subduction or accreted onto continental margins. Complete subduction of oceanic plateaus is common in models with old (> 40 Ma) oceanic lithosphere whereas models with younger lithosphere often result in terrane accretion. Three distinct modes of terrane accretion were identified depending on the rheological structure of the lower crust and oceanic cooling age: frontal plateau accretion, basal plateau accretion and underplating plateaus.Complete plateau subduction is associated with a sharp uplift of the forearc region and the formation of a basin further landward, followed by topographic relaxation. All crustal material is lost by subduction and crustal growth is solely attributed to partial melting of the mantle.Frontal plateau accretion leads to crustal thickening and the formation of thrust and fold belts, since oceanic plateaus are docked onto the continental margin. Strong deformation leads to slab break off, which eventually terminates subduction, shortly after the collisional stage has been reached. Crustal parts that have been sheared off during detachment melt at depth and modify the composition of the overlying continental crust.Basal plateau accretion scrapes oceanic plateaus off the downgoing slab, enabling the outward migration of the subduction zone. New incoming oceanic crust underthrusts the fractured terrane and forms a new subduction zone behind the accreted terrane. Subsequently, hot asthenosphere rises into the newly formed subduction zone and allows for extensive partial melting of crustal rocks, located at the slab interface, and only minor parts of the former oceanic plateau remain unmodified.Oceanic plateaus may also underplate the continental crust after being subducted to mantle depth. (U)HP terranes are formed with peak metamorphic temperatures of 400–700 °C prior to slab break off and subsequent exhumation. Rapid and coherent exhumation through the mantle along the former subduction zone at rates comparable to plate tectonic velocities is followed by somewhat slower rates at crustal levels, accompanied by crustal flow, structural reworking and syndeformational partial melting. Exhumation of these large crustal volumes leads to a sharp surface uplift.     

Sediment subduction versus accretion around the pacific

Subducting oceanic plates are typically broken by normal faults as they bend downward into subduction zones, usually forming regular patterns of grabens. The faults strike parallel or subparallel to the trench axes and are most commonly 5–10 km in spacing and width. Rupture occurs initially near the outer topographic high and vertical displacement or graben depth increases as the plate descends, the 400 m or more at many trench axes. It is suggested that the grabens provide void spaces within the surface of the subducting plate, below the plane of subduction, into which the trench sediments are tectonically displaced and thus subducted. Around the Pacific, the only regions of apparent fore-arc sediment accretion are where the graben structures are missing or masked by thick sediment deposits. Even in these cases sediment subduction, by inclusion in subducting plate grabens or by other mechanisms, must be invoked to explain the relatively small fore-arc sediment volumes compared to calculated accretion volumes based on historical convergence. Where trench sediment volumes are small compared to the graben volumes the grabens may abrade the leading edge and underside of the overriding plate and subduct the eroded material. It is concluded that sediment subduction is dominant around the Circum-Pacific and that the bending-induced graben structures of the subducting plates are a major factor for sediment subduction and tectonic erosion.     

The role of boundary conditions in numerical models of subduction zone dynamics

Numerical studies of subduction zone dynamics on a regional scale usually use a limited spatial extent for their models and therefore need to define boundary conditions on all model edges. These boundary conditions imply a choice for the mechanical and thermal state of the surrounding regions which may influence the evolution of the model system. We investigate the role of the surface and lateral boundary conditions for simple mechanical subduction models using a standard finite element method. We find that subduction is only possible if the slab can decouple from the surface. This decoupling can be achieved by a true free surface, a free-slip surface with a weak crust for the subducting plate, or a free-slip surface with a layer of low viscosity, low density material (‘sticky air’) between the model surface and the crust. Models of slab dynamics that employ a free-slip surface reproduce trench migration, slab sinking velocities and slab geometry of models with a free surface, as long as they use either a weak crust, which can be viscous, viscoelastic and/or brittle, or a ‘sticky air’ layer. The vertical topography will however not be reproduced for free-slip models without a ‘sticky air’ layer. For ocean–ocean convergent models we find that the application of inflow boundary conditions at the edges of the subducting or overriding lithosphere controls trench motion and the geometry of the subducting slab. Inflow on the overriding side causes trench retreat and a slab resting on the lower mantle, whereas inflow restricted to the subducting side can cause trench advance and a slab which folds on the lower mantle.     

Reconstructing the ancestral Yellowstone plume from accreted seamounts and its relationship to flat-slab subduction

Recent geodynamic analyses have emphasized the relationship between modern flat-slab subduction zones and the overriding of buoyant oceanic crust. Although most models for the evolution of the Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic Laramide orogeny in the southwestern United States involve flat-slab subduction, the mechanisms proposed are controversial. An examination of the geological evolution of the 60–50-Ma Crescent terrane of the Coast Ranges indicates that it was formed in a shallowing-upward Loihi-type oceanic setting culminating in the eruption of subaerial lavas. Plate reconstructions indicate that the Crescent terrane was emplaced into ca. 20-Ma crust, and the presence of subaerial lavas implies an uplift due to the plume of ca. 4.2 km, which we use to calculate a minimum buoyancy flux of 1.1 Mg s⁻¹, similar to that of the modern Yellowstone plume.Published paleomagnetic data indicate that the Crescent terrane was formed at a paleolatitude similar to that of the Yellowstone plume. The Crescent seamount was accreted within 5 My of the cessation of plume magmatism. Plate reconstructions indicate that it would have originated about 750 km to the west of the North American plate margin if it developed above a fixed Yellowstone plume, and are therefore consistent with the recorded very short interval between its formation and tectonic emplacement.We interpret the Crescent terrane as due to the ancestral Yellowstone plume. Such a plume would have generated an elongate swell and related plateau that would have been overridden by the North American margin. Taken together, the relationship between flat-slab and overriding of oceanic plateau in Laramide times would have been analogous to the relationship between modern Andean flat-slab subduction zones and the Juan Fernandez and Nazca oceanic plateaus.     

Subduction disruption,slab tears: ca. 1 Ma true collision of an ~30-km-thick oceanic plateau segment recorded by Yakutat slab nascent tear magmatism

Distinguishing the initiation of actual collision from flat-slab subduction of oceanic buoyant highs along convergent margins is elusive because both can lead to inboard deformation and disrupt magmatic arcs. Volcanoes with nascent tear magmatic signatures provide a means to document both the occurrence and timing of actual oceanic buoyant high collision. There is a ~40-year debate on when the true collision of the Yakutat plateau began in Alaska. Three newly identified ca. 1 Ma volcanoes with a north-to-south trench perpendicular orientation, nascent tear geochemical signatures, overlaying an imaged Yakutat slab tear, provide constraints on the timing of Yakutat collision and slab tearing. The ca. 1 Ma slab tear is coincident with Yakutat slab segmentation, northern continental Aleutian Arc rejuvenation, cessation of Wrangell Arc magmatism, increased collisional zone exhumation and eastern Yakutat trench abandonment. The documentation of nascent slab tear volcanoes may help resolve similar debates in other convergent margin settings.     

Balance of tectonically accreted and subducted sediment at the Chile Triple Junction

An active oceanic spreading ridge is being subducted beneath the South American continent at the Chile Triple Junction. Mass balance estimations to characterize temporal and spatial variations in the frontal accretion, or underplating and subduction of sediments since the Late Miocene, were made using seismic and drill-hole data. At 200 km north of the triple junction, almost 80% of the sediment on the downgoing Nazca plate are subducted. Sediment subduction rate decreases towards the triple junction because of a low in sedimentation rates as the flank of the spreading ridge approaches the trench. At the triple junction, the forearc is almost completely destroyed by spreading ridge collision and subduction erosion. Less than 12% of the available sedimentary input is accreted. South of the triple junction, where the spreading ridge passed 6 Ma ago, a large fraction (>60%) of the sediment on the incoming Antarctic plate has been scraped off and was frontally accreted to the Chile forearc. Spreading ridge subduction leaves a distinctive geological fingerprint, and has a large impact on the mass balance of the subduction zone. However, the high rates of change in the process may make this fingerprint hard to detect in fossil convergent orogens. In the ridge collision zone the sediment supplied to the trench, and the amount of sediment subducted, show strong and distinctive variations on a 1- to 5-million-year time scale. On a 10-million-year time scale, sediment subduction to the Earth's mantle is reduced by spreading ridge collision, caused by the need of the overriding forearc to regain a low angle of taper by frontal accretion.     

地体的单向和多向聚合与离散

地体构造是对板块构造理论的发展和补充,它受控于全球板块动力学体系,因此不能将地体与板块割裂开来去研究.其相对于刚性板块的小规模、多样性和广泛性,对了解全球板块的离散和大陆的拼贴增生过程具有十分重要意义.地体构造无处不在,它不仅存在于中、新生代陆缘造山带中,也存在于古老造山带中,一些古老的克拉通实际上也是由不同的地体拼合...     

俯冲带结构演变解剖与研究展望

俯冲带作为板块构造最为重要的标志之一,是地球最大的物质循环系统,被称为“俯冲工厂”.俯冲作用是驱动和维持板块运动的重要动力引擎.一个完整的俯冲带发育海沟、增生楔、弧前盆地、岩浆弧、弧后盆地（或弧背前陆盆地）等基本构造单元.在一些特殊情况下（如洋脊俯冲、年轻洋壳俯冲、海山俯冲）,则可形成一些特殊的俯冲带结构（如平板俯冲、俯冲侵蚀）,导致岩浆弧、增生楔、弧前盆地等不发育甚至缺失.俯冲大洋板片可滞留于或穿越地幔过渡带进入下地幔甚至到达核幔边界,把地壳物质带入到地球深部,并通过地幔柱活动上升到浅部.俯冲带是构造活动强烈的区域,存在走滑、挤压、伸展等变形及其构造叠加.俯冲带海沟可向大洋或大陆方向迁移,岛弧及增生楔等也随之发生迁移,使俯冲带上盘发生周期性挤压和伸展,形成复杂的古地理格局.微陆块、岛弧、海山/洋底高原等地质体在俯冲带发生增生时,可阻塞先存的俯冲带,造成俯冲带跃迁或俯冲极性反转,在其外侧形成新的俯冲带.俯冲带深部精细结构、俯冲起始如何发生、板块俯冲与地幔柱的深部关联机制等是当前俯冲带研究中值得关注的前沿问题.开展俯冲带地球物理深部探测、古缝合带与现今俯冲带对比研究、俯冲带动力学数值模拟...     

Continental growth at convergent margins facing large ocean basins: a case study from Mesozoic convergent-margin basins of Baja California, Mexico

Mesozoic rocks of the Baja California Peninsula form one of the most areally extensive, best-exposed, longest-lived (160 my), least-tectonized and least-metamorphosed convergent-margin basin complexes in the world. This convergent margin shows an evolutionary trend that may be typical of arc systems facing large ocean basins: a progression from highly extensional (phase 1) through mildly extensional (phase 2) to compressional (phase 3) strain regimes. This trend is largely due to the progressively decreasing age of lithosphere that is subducted, which causes a gradual decrease in slab dip angle (and concomitant increase in coupling between lower and upper plates), as well as progressive inboard migration of the arc axis.This paper emphasizes the usefulness of sedimentary and volcanic basin analysis for reconstructing the tectonic evolution of a convergent continental margin. Phase 1 consists of Late Triassic to Late Jurassic oceanic intra-arc to backarc basins that were isolated from continental sediment sources. New, progressively widening basins were created by arc rifting and sea floor spreading, and these were largely filled with progradational backarc arc-apron deposits that record the growth of adjacent volcanoes up to and above sea level. Inboard migration of the backarc spreading center ultimately results in renewed arc rifting, producing an influx of silicic pyroclastics to the backarc basin. Rifting succeeds in conversion of the active backarc basin into a remnant backarc basin, which is blanketed by epiclastic sands.Phase 1 oceanic arc–backarc terranes were amalgamated by Late Jurassic sinistral strike slip faults. They form the forearc substrate for phase 2, indicating inboard migration of the arc axis due to decrease in slab dip. Phase 2 consists of Early Cretaceous extensional fringing arc basins adjacent to a continent. Phase 2 forearc basins consist of grabens that stepped downward toward the trench, filled with coarse-grained slope apron deposits. Phase 2 intra-arc basins show a cycle of (1) arc extension, characterized by intermediate to silicic explosive and effusive volcanism, culminating in caldera-forming silicic ignimbrite eruptions, followed by (2) arc rifting, characterized by widespread dike swarms and extensive mafic lavas and hyaloclastites. This extensional-rifting cycle was followed by mid-Cretaceous backarc basin closure and thrusting of the fringing arc beneath the edge of the continent, caused by a decrease in slab dip as well as a possible increase in convergence rate.Phase 2 fringing arc terranes form the substrate for phase 3, which consists of a Late Cretaceous high-standing, compressional continental arc that migrated inboard with time. Strongly coupled subduction resulted in accretion of blueschist metamorphic rocks, with development of a broad residual forearc basin behind the growing accretionary wedge, and development of extensional forearc (trench–slope) basins atop the gravitationally collapsing accretionary wedge. Inboard of this, ongoing phase 3 strongly coupled subduction, together with oblique convergence, resulted in development of forearc strike-slip basins upon arc basement.The modern Earth is strongly biased toward long-lived arc–trench systems, which are compressional; therefore, evolutionary models for convergent margins must be constructed from well-preserved ancient examples like Baja California. This convergent margin is typical of many others, where the early to middle stages of convergence (phases 1 and 2) create nonsubductable arc–ophiolite terranes (and their basin fills) in the upper plate. These become accreted to the continental margin in the late stage of convergence (phase 3), resulting in significant continental growth.     

Numerical modeling of flow patterns around subducting slabs in a viscoelastic medium and its implications in the lithospheric stress analysis

This paper presents results obtained from numerical model experiments to show different patterns of mantle flow produced by lithospheric movement in subduction zones. Using finite element models, based on Maxwell rheology (relaxation time ∼ 10¹¹S), we performed three types of experiments: Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3. In Type 1 experiments, the lithospheric slab subducts into the mantle by translational movement, maintaining a constant subduction angle. The experimental results show that the flow perturbations occur in the form of vortices in the mantle wedge, irrespective of subduction rate and angle. The mantle wedge vortex is coupled with another vortex below the subducting plate, which tends to be more conspicuous with decreasing subduction rate. Type 2 experiments take into account a flexural deformation of the plate, and reveal its effect on the flow patterns. The flexural motion induces a flow in the form of spiral pattern at the slab edge. Density-controlled lithospheric flexural motion produces a secondary flow convergence zone beneath the overriding plate. In many convergent zones the subducting lithospheric plate undergoes detachment, and moves down into the mantle freely. Type 3 experiments demonstrate flow perturbations resulting from such slab detachments. Using three-dimensional models we analyze lithospheric stresses in convergent zone, and map the belts of horizontal compression and tension as a function of subduction angle.     

Variations of slab dip and overriding plate tectonics during subduction: Insights from analogue modelling

We present small-scale laboratory models of oceanic subduction in which plates motion is imposed by lateral boundary conditions. The oceanic plate moves trenchward at constant speed and subducts below a fixed overriding plate. In this configuration, the long-term process of subduction is not steady-state. Slab interaction with the upper mantle-lower mantle boundary results in periods of slab flattening during which the dip of the slab diminishes, followed by periods of slab steepening. The overriding plate tectonic regime is influenced by the dynamics of subduction, slab anchoring favouring trench perpendicular shortening. When the slab is anchored, slab flattening further favours shortening, while slab steepening favours extension or smaller shortening rates. Non-steady-state long-term subduction may explain part of the variability of slab geometries evidenced by statistical analyses of present-day subduction zones. Experiments suggest that, despite boundary conditions applied on the converging plates do not change, tectonics pulses within the overriding plate may be caused by this non-steady-state behaviour.     

西藏南羌塘晚三叠世陆缘俯冲增生造山带的褶皱-冲断与增生杂岩双层结构厘定

增生型造山带形成于活动大陆边缘,以宽阔且延伸稳定的增生杂岩为代表,在大洋板块向大陆板块发生缓慢而复杂的俯冲、碰撞过程中,大洋板块、火山岛弧、海山、大陆碎块等沿逐渐后退的海沟拼贴,仰冲板块前端发生刮削作用、底垫作用和构造剥蚀等作用,使得洋壳物质在海沟内壁增生,具体表现为增生杂岩的形成、垂向和侧向的生长,最终实现陆壳的横向生长。陆陆碰撞期间,加入俯冲通道的被动陆缘也将遭受类似的构造作用,从而形成规模较大的陆缘增生杂岩。因此,造山带增生杂岩的物质组成与结构、形成机制和演化过程对解剖洋陆转换过程中的复杂地球动力学过程具有极为关键的作用。西藏南羌塘增生杂岩是近年来通过走廊性地质填图以及多学科交叉工作得到的研究认识。然而,该增生杂岩的物质组成和结构等关键内容还未得到系统的研究,严重阻碍了对其形成机制和演化过程的理解。因此,本文以时空演化为主线,解剖杂岩物质组成和结构,结合俯冲期和同碰撞期大地构造单元,洞察南羌塘增生杂岩的形成演化过程。本次研究显示:(1)南羌塘增生杂岩具有俯冲杂岩在下、褶皱-冲断带在上的双层结构,二者间为大规模的拆离断层系统;(2)俯冲杂岩内不只含有洋板块地层单元,还含有大量的南羌塘被动陆缘物质;(3)褶皱-冲断带虽主要由被动陆缘物质变形改造而来,也含有属于洋板块地层系统的海山和洋内岛弧等物质。结合同俯冲期弧前盆地和楔顶盆地、同碰撞期晚三叠世岩浆的时空分布,高压变质岩的形成与折返时限,南羌塘增生杂岩内的双层结构应主要是陆陆碰撞过程中被动陆缘俯冲的结果,少量形成于大洋俯冲期间的俯冲反向过程中。本文提出的陆缘俯冲导致南羌塘增生杂岩双层结构的研究认识,对理解南羌塘地壳结构、中生代盆地基底形成演化具有较为重要的意义。     

Global tectonic significance of the Solomon Islands and Ontong Java Plateau convergent zone

Oceanic plateaus, areas of anomalously thick oceanic crust, cover about 3% of the Earth's seafloor and are thought to mark the surface location of mantle plume “heads”. Hotspot tracks represent continuing magmatism associated with the remaining plume conduit or “tail”. It is presently controversial whether voluminous and mafic oceanic plateau lithosphere is eventually accreted at subduction zones, and, therefore: (1) influences the eventual composition of continental crust and; (2) is responsible for significantly higher rates of continental growth than growth only by accretion of island arcs. The Ontong Java Plateau (OJP) of the southwestern Pacific Ocean is the largest and thickest oceanic plateau on Earth and the largest plateau currently converging on an island arc (Solomon Islands). For this reason, this convergent zone is a key area for understanding the fate of large and thick plateaus on reaching subduction zones.This volume consists of a series of four papers that summarize the results of joint US–Japan marine geophysical studies in 1995 and 1998 of the Solomon Islands–Ontong Java Plateau convergent zone. Marine geophysical data include single and multi-channel seismic reflection, ocean-bottom seismometer (OBS) refraction, gravity, magnetic, sidescan sonar, and earthquake studies. Objectives of this introductory paper include: (1) review of the significance of oceanic plateaus as potential contributors to continental crust; (2) review of the current theories on the fate of oceanic plateaus at subduction zones; (3) establish the present-day and Neogene tectonic setting of the Solomon Islands–Ontong Java Plateau convergent zone; (4) discuss the controversial sequence and timing of tectonic events surrounding Ontong Java Plateau–Solomon arc convergence; (5) present a series of tectonic reconstructions for the period 20 Ma (early Miocene) to the present-day in support of our proposed timing of major tectonic events affecting the Ontong Java Plateau–Solomon Islands convergent zone; and (6) compare the structural and deformational pattern observed in the Solomon Islands to ancient oceanic plateaus preserved in Precambrian and Phanerozoic orogenic belts. Our main conclusion of this study is that 80% of the crustal thickness of the Ontong Java Plateau is subducted beneath the Solomon island arc; only the uppermost basaltic and sedimentary part of the crust (7 km) is preserved on the overriding plate by subduction–accretion processes. This observation is consistent with the observed imbricate structural style of plateaus and seamount chains preserved in both Precambrian and Phanerozoic orogenic belts.     

Initiation of Subduction Zones as a Consequence of Lateral Compositional Buoyancy Contrast within the Lithosphere: a Petrological Perspective

Tonga and Mariana fore-arc peridotites, inferred to representtheir respective sub-arc mantle lithospheres, are compositionallyhighly depleted (low Fe/Mg) and thus physically buoyant relativeto abyssal peridotites representing normal oceanic lithosphere(high Fe/Mg) formed at ocean ridges. The observation that thedepletion of these fore-arc lithospheres is unrelated to, andpre-dates, the inception of present-day western Pacific subductionzones demonstrates the pre-existence of compositional buoyancycontrast at the sites of these subduction zones. These observationsallow us to suggest that lateral compositional buoyancy contrastwithin the oceanic lithosphere creates the favoured and necessarycondition for subduction initiation. Edges of buoyant oceanicplateaux, for example, mark a compositional buoyancy contrastwithin the oceanic lithosphere. These edges under deviatoriccompression (e.g. ridge push) could develop reverse faults withcombined forces in excess of the oceanic lithosphere strength,allowing the dense normal oceanic lithosphere to sink into theasthenosphere beneath the buoyant overriding oceanic plateaux,i.e. the initiation of subduction zones. We term this conceptthe ‘oceanic plateau model’. This model explainsmany other observations and offers testable hypotheses on importantgeodynamic problems on a global scale. These include (1) theorigin of the 43 Ma bend along the Hawaii–Emperor SeamountChain in the Pacific, (2) mechanisms of ophiolite emplacement,(3) continental accretion, etc. Subduction initiation is notunique to oceanic plateaux, but the plateau model well illustratesthe importance of the compositional buoyancy contrast withinthe lithosphere for subduction initiation. Most portions ofpassive continental margins, such as in the Atlantic where largecompositional buoyancy contrast exists, are the loci of futuresubduction zones. KEY WORDS: subduction initiation; compositional buoyancy contrast; oceanic lithosphere; plate tectonics; mantle plumes; hotspots; oceanic plateaux; passive continental margins; continental accretion; mantle peridotites; ophiolites     

Subduction of the Woodlark Basin at New Britain Trench, Solomon Islands region

The Woodlark Basin, located south of the Solomon Islands arc region, is a young (5 Ma) oceanic basin that subducts beneath the New Britain Trench. This region is one of only a few subduction zones in the world where it is possible to study a young plate subduction of several Ma. To obtain the image of the subducting slab at the western side of the Woodlark Basin, a 40-day Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) survey was conducted in 1998 to detect the micro-seismic activity. It was the first time such a survey had been performed in this location and over 600 hypocenters were located. The seismic activity is concentrated at the 10–60 km depth range along the plate boundary. The upper limit just about coincides with the leading edge of the accretionary wedge. The upper limit boundary was identified as the up-dip limit of the seismogenic zone, whereas the down-dip limit of the seismogenic zone was difficult to define. The dip angle of the plate at the high seismicity zone was found to average about 30°. Using the Cascadia subduction zone for comparison, which is a typical example of a young plate subduction, suggests that the subduction of the Woodlark Basin was differentiated by a high dip angle and rather landward location of the seismic front from the trench axis (30 km landward from the trench axis). Furthermore, as pointed out by previous researchers, the convergent margin of the Solomon Islands region is imposed with a high stress state, probably due to the collision of the Ontong Java Plateau and a rather rapid convergence rate (10 cm/year). The results of the high angle plate subduction and inner crust earthquakes beneath the Shortland Basin strongly support the high stress state. The collision of the Ontong Java Plateau, the relatively rapid convergence rate, and moderately cold slab as evidenced by low heat flow, rather than the plate age, may be dominantly responsible for the geometry of the seismogenic zone in the western part of the Woodlark Basin subduction zone.     

Accretion of oceanic plateaus at continental margins: Numerical modeling

The accretion of oceanic plateaus has played a significant role in continental growth during Earth's history, which is evidenced by the presence of oceanic island basalts (OIB) and plume-type ophiolites in many modern orogens. However, oceanic plateaus can also be subducted into the deeper mantle, as revealed by seismic tomography. The controlling factors of accretion versus subduction of oceanic plateaus remain unclear. Here, we investigate the dynamics of oceanic plateau accretion at active continental margins using a thermo-mechanical numerical model. Three major factors for the accretion of oceanic plateaus are studied: (1) a thinned continental margin of the overriding plate, (2) “weak” layers in the oceanic lithosphere, and (3) a young oceanic plateau. For a large oceanic plateau, the modes of oceanic plateau accretion can be classified into one-sided and two-sided subduction–collisional regimes, which mainly depend on the geometry of the continental margin (normal or thinned). For smaller-sized seamounts, accretion occurs only if all three factors are satisfied, of which a thinned continental margin is the most critical. Possible geological analogues for the two-sided subduction–collisional mode include the Taiwan orogenic belt and subduction of the Ontong Java Plateau. The accretion model for small oceanic plateaus applies to the Nadanhada Terrane in Northeast China.     

How was Taiwan created?

Since the beginning of formation of proto-Taiwan during late Miocene (9 Ma), the subducting Philippine (PH) Sea plate moved continuously through time in the N307° direction at a 5.6 cm/year velocity with respect to Eurasia (EU), tearing the Eurasian plate. Strain states within the EU crust are different on each side of the western PH Sea plate boundary (extensional in the Okinawa Trough and northeastern Taiwan versus contractional for the rest of Taiwan Island). The B feature corresponds to the boundary between the continental and oceanic parts of the subducting Eurasian plate and lies in the prolongation of the ocean–continent boundary of the northern South China Sea. Strain rates in the Philippines to northern Taiwan accretionary prism are similar on each side of B (contractional), though with different strain directions, perhaps in relation with the change of nature of the EU slab across B. Consequently, in the process of Taiwan mountain building, the deformation style was probably not changing continuously from the Manila to the Ryukyu subduction zones. The Luzon intra-oceanic arc only formed south of B, above the subducting Eurasian oceanic lithosphere. North of B, the Luzon arc collided with EU simultaneously with the eastward subduction of a portion of EU continental lithosphere beneath the Luzon arc. In its northern portion, the lower part of the Luzon arc was subducting beneath Eurasia while the upper part accreted against the Ryukyu forearc. Among the consequences of such a simple geodynamic model: (i) The notion of continuum from subduction to collision might be questioned. (ii) Traces of the Miocene volcanic arc were never found in the southwestern Ryukyu arc. We suggest that the portion of EU continental lithosphere, which has subducted beneath the Coastal Range, might include the Miocene Ryukyu arc volcanoes formed west of 126°E longitude and which are missing today. (iii) The 150-km-wide oceanic domain located south of B between the Luzon arc and the Manila trench, above the subducting oceanic EU plate (South China Sea) was progressively incorporated into the EU plate north of B.     

2D thermomechanical modelling of continent–arc–continent collision

Arc–continent collision is a key process of continental growth through accretion of newly grown magmatic arc crust to older continental margin. We present 2D petrological–thermo-mechanical models of arc–continent collision and investigate geodynamic regimes of this process. The model includes spontaneous slab bending, dehydration of subducted crust, aqueous fluid transport, partial melting of the crustal and mantle rocks and magmatic crustal growth stemming from melt extraction processes. Results point to two end-member types of subsequent arc–continent collisional orogens: (I) orogens with remnants of accretion prism, detached fragments of the overriding plate and magmatic rocks formed from molten subducted sediments; and (II) orogens mainly consisting of the closed back-arc basin suture, detached fragments of the overriding plate with leftovers of the accretion prism and quasi insignificant amount of sediment-derived magmatic rocks. Transitional orogens between these two endmembers include both the suture of the collapsed back-arc basin and variable amounts of magmatic production. The orogenic variability mainly reflects the age of the subducting oceanic plate. Older, therefore colder and denser oceanic plates trigger subduction retreat, which in turn triggers necking of the overriding plate and opening of a backarc basin in which new oceanic lithosphere is formed from voluminous decompression melting of the rising hot asthenosphere. In this case, subducted sediments are not heated enough to melt and generate magmatic plumes. On the other hand, young and less dense slabs do not retreat, which hampers opening of a backarc basin in the overriding plate while subducted sediments may reach their melting temperature and develop trans-lithospheric plumes. We have also investigated the influences of convergence rate and volcanic/plutonic rocks' ratio in newly forming lithosphere. The predicted gross-scale orogenic structures find similarities with some natural orogens, in particular with deeply eroded orogens such as the Variscides in the Bohemian Massif.     

Synthesis of Palaeozoic deformational events and terrane accretion in the Canadian Appalachians

Plate tectonic theory predicts that most deformation is associated with subduction and terrane accretion, with some deformation associated with transform/transcurrent movements. Deformation associated with subduction varies between two end members: (1) where the tectonic regime is dominated by subduction of oceanic lithosphere containing small terranes, a narrow surface zone of accretionary deformation along the subduction zone starts diachronously on the subducting plate at the trench as material is transferred from the subducting plate to the over-riding plate; and (2) where continent-continent collision is occurring, a wide surface zone of accretionary deformation starts synchronously or with limited diachronism. Palaeozoic deformational events in the Canadian Appalachians correspond to narrow diachronous events in the Ordovician and Silurian, whereas Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian deformational events are widespread and broadly synchronous. Along the western side of the Canadian Appalachians, the Taconian deformational event starts diachronously throughout the Ordovician and corresponds to the north-north-west accretion of the Notre Dame, Ascot-Weedon, St Victor and various ophiolitic massifs (volcanic arc and peri-arc terranes) over cratonic North America. Within the eastern half of the Central Mobile Belt, the Late Cambrian-Early Ordovician Penobscotian deformational event corresponds to the ?south-easterly accretion of the Exploits subzone (various volcanic are and peri-arc terranes) over the Gander Zone (?continental rise). In the centre of the orogen, the Late Ordovician-Silurian Beothukan deformational event corresponds to the south-easterly accretion of the Notre Dame over the Exploits-Gander subzones. Along the south-eastern side of the Central Mobile Belt, the Silurian Ganderian deformational event corresponds to the north-north-east, sinistral transcurrent accretion of the Avalon Composite Terrane (microcontinent) over the Gander-Exploits zones. Along the south-eastern half of the orogen, the Late Silurian-Middle Devonian Acadian deformation event corresponds to the westerly accretion of the Meguma terrane (intradeep or continental rise) over the Avalon Composite Terrane. Affecting the entire orogen, the Late Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian, Acadian-Alleghanian deformational events correspond to the east-west convergence between Laurentia and Gondwana (continent-continent collision).