A seismogenic zone in the deep crust indicated by pseudotachylytes and ultramylonites in granulite-facies rocks of Calabria (Southern Italy)

Pseudotachylyte veins frequently associated with mylonites and ultramylonites occur within migmatitic paragneisses, metamonzodiorites, as well as felsic and mafic granulites at the base of the section of the Hercynian lower crust exposed in Calabria (Southern Italy). The crustal section is tectonically superposed on lower grade units. Ultramylonites and pseudotachylytes are particularly well developed in migmatitic paragneisses, whereas sparse fault-related pseudotachylytes and thin mylonite/ultramylonite bands occur in granulite-facies rocks. The presence of sillimanite and clinopyroxene in ultramylonites and mylonites indicates that relatively high-temperature conditions preceded the formation of pseudotachylytes. We have analysed pseudotachylytes from different rock types to ascertain their deep crustal origin and to better understand the relationships between brittle and ductile processes during deformation of the deeper crust. Different protoliths were selected to test how lithology controls pseudotachylyte composition and textures. In migmatites and felsic granulites, euhedral or cauliflower-shaped garnets directly crystallized from pseudotachylyte melts of near andesitic composition. This indicates that pseudotachylytes originated at deep crustal conditions (>0.75 GPa). In mafic protoliths, quenched needle-to-feather-shaped high-alumina orthopyroxene occurs in contact with newly crystallized plagioclase. The pyroxene crystallizes in garnet-free and garnet-bearing veins. The simultaneous growth of orthopyroxene and plagioclase as well as almandine, suggests lower crustal origin, with pressures in excess of 0.85 GPa. The existence of melts of different composition in the same vein indicates the stepwise, non-equilibrium conditions of frictional melting. Melt formed and intruded into pre-existing anisotropies. In mafic granulites, brittle faulting is localized in a previously formed thin high-temperature mylonite bands. migmatitic gneisses are deformed into ultramylonite domains characterized by s-c fabric. Small grain size and fluids lowered the effective stress on the c planes favouring a seismic event and the consequent melt generation. Microstructures and ductile deformation of pseudotachylytes suggest continuous ductile flow punctuated by episodes of high-strain rate, leading to seismic events and melting.     

Pseudotachylyte-Induced Weakness of Plate-Boundary Fault:Insight from the Indus-Tsangpo Suture between India and Asia

Although the Indus-Tsangpo Suture(ITS) is the most spectacular thrust system of continent-continent collision in the world, fundamental questions about its strength evolution and deformation behavior transition remain unanswered. Here we reported, for the first time, frictional melting-induced pseudotachylytes in the intensively deformed felsic rocks along the ITS zone in southern Tibet. This study reveals that pseudotachylytes induced profound weakness of the boundary fault between Indian and Asian plates. The intrinsically low strength of the foliated microlites crystallized from frictional melt or glass(i.e., pseudotachylyte) at seismogenic depths compared with the surrounding coarse-grained quartzofeldspathic rocks in the brittle and semi-brittle regime is sufficient to explain the localization of shear strain, the development of ductile shear zones embedded in strong wall rocks, and the transition from the strong to weak fault behaviors without invoking the presence of high fluid pressure or low friction coefficient metasomatic materials(e.g., smectite or lizardite) within the faults.     

Pseudotachylyte petrogenesis: constraints from the Sudbury impact structure

 Pseudotachylytes and their host rocks from the North Range of the 1.85 Ga Sudbury impact structure have been investigated using analytical scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis and XRF spectrometry. The results show that the pseudotachylytes were produced in high-speed slip zones by the frictional comminution and selective melting of wall rock lithologies. The preferential assimilation of hydrous ferromagnesian phases during frictional melting produced relatively basic melts, leaving the more mechanically resistant quartz and, to a lesser extent, plagioclase as included mineral clasts. Three distinct assemblages are identified within the pseudotachylytes: (a) pre-impact (>1.85 Ga) rock and mineral clasts derived from host lithologies; (b) a syn- to immediately post-impact (1.85 Ga), rapidly cooled, quartz + sanidine + labradorite + phlogopitic biotite matrix assemblage, formed due to crystallization from a melt at 800–900°C and (c) a post-impact (<1.85 Ga) retrograde assemblage which overprints both clasts and matrices. Field evidence indicates that most pseudotachylyte formed in large-displacement fault systems during gravitational collapse of the impact-generated transient cavity. The Sudbury pseudotachylytes, like endogenic pseudotachylytes, were generated by frictional melting on fault surfaces. The difference is primarily one of scale. Large (km) displacements occurring on impact-induced ring faults can generate immense volumes of friction melt resulting in spectacular pseudotachylyte bodies up to 0.5 km thick and more than 10 km long. Received: 15 March 1996 / Accepted: 15 June 1996     

A Mössbauer study of pseudotachylytes: redox conditions during seismogenic faulting

The redox conditions during frictional melting provide information on the physical and chemical conditions during seismic slip in the crust. Here we examine frictional melts from five localities by analyzing host rocks and corresponding pseudotachylytes using Mössbauer spectroscopy. The faults examined are located at South Mountain, Arizona; Fort Foster, Maine (two localities); Long Ridge fault, North Carolina; and the Homestake shear zone, Colorado. The main iron-bearing phases in the pseudotachylytes are phyllosilicates (biotite, muscovite and clays) and iron oxides (magnetite and hematite) and minor pyrite. The ferrous/ferric ratios of the phyllosilicates in the host rocks are the same as those in the pseudotachylytes, except for the hematite-bearing pseudotachylyte from the Long Ridge fault, which is more oxidized. The magnetites in the host rocks and the corresponding pseudotachylytes have different ferric and ferrous iron distributions, which is attributed to different cation chemistry, rather than redox conditions. With the exception of the South Mountain locality, the ferric/ferrous ratios of the micas are interpreted to record the primary redox state of the pseudotachylyte melt as the calculated oxygen fugacities are consistent with magnetite and hematite equilibria. Pyrite-bearing pseudotachylytes plot ~0–1 log₁₀ units above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz (FMQ) buffer. Magnetite-bearing pseudotachylytes plot ~2–4 log₁₀ units above the FMQ buffer, and hematite-bearing pseudotachylytes plot 3.5 log₁₀ units above the hematite-magnetite (HM) buffer. Hematite-bearing pseudotachylytes, together with previous oxygen isotope data, are inferred to represent melting in the presence of externally derived pressurized water. Other localities are inferred to represent melting under rock-buffered, closed system, conditions. If the localities studied are representative of seismogenic faulting, the calculated oxygen fugacities indicate that, in the system C–O–H–S, H₂O and CO₂ should be the dominant fluid species. This is the first detailed study of the redox state of pseudotachylytes.     

西藏羌塘裂谷带假玄武玻璃的发现及其岩石学特征与构造意义

假玄武玻璃是地震过程中断层滑动产生摩擦熔融并快速冷却的产物，被誉为"地震化石"，记录了断层带内地震发生时的物理-化学过程的相关信息，是认识断裂活动历史的重要物质组成。本文以青藏高原腹地羌塘地块SN向正断层——东依布茶卡断层中的假玄武玻璃和碎裂岩等为研究对象，借助偏光显微镜、扫描电镜、粉末X射线衍射分析、原位XRF分析等多种方法对其进行了详细的结构、构造、矿物成分及化学元素分布的分析。野外调查表明该断裂带中假玄武玻璃呈深灰-褐色，与超碎裂岩和碎裂岩相伴生，以断层脉、注入脉和网状脉的形式产出，厚度由几毫米至一厘米不等。显微结构观察显示，假玄武玻璃中残留有摩擦熔融形成的特征构造，如石英的港湾状熔蚀边、蜂窝状气孔构造以及局部发育的长柱状微晶、束状微晶集合体等，指示其为断层滑动摩擦熔融的产物。此外可见假玄武玻璃作为碎屑出现在碎裂岩和角砾岩中，且后期的碎裂岩中包含早期形成的碎裂岩的角砾等，这些特征表明在该断裂带内大地震事件多次重复发生。以该地区正断层初始活动时限13.5Ma、碎裂岩和假玄武玻璃形成深度为10km以下计算，这些断裂岩石从地下深部折返的速率至少为~0.74mm/yr。目前国际上鲜有报导正断层形成的假玄武玻璃，这是我们首次在羌塘地块SN向裂谷正断层中发现熔融成因的假玄武玻璃，对认识区域地震活动及断裂带演化过程具有重要意义。     

Deformation and ultrafine dynamic recrystallization of quartz in pseudotachylyte-bearing brittle faults: A matter of a few seconds

Tectonic pseudotachylytes, i.e. quenched friction-induced silicate melts, record coseismic slip along faults and are mainly reported from the brittle crust in association with cataclasites. In this study, we document the occurrence of recrystallization of quartz to ultrafine-grained (grain size 1–2 μm) aggregates along microshear zones (50–150 μm thick) in the host rock adjacent to pseudotachylytes from two different faults within quartzite (Schneeberg Normal Fault Zone, Eastern Alps), and tonalite (Adamello fault, Southern Alps) in the brittle crust. The transition from the host quartz to microshear zone interior includes: (i) formation of high dislocation densities; (ii) fine (0.3–0.5 μm) polygonization to subgrains defined by disordered to well-ordered dislocation walls; (iii) development of a mosaic aggregate of dislocation-free new grains. The crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) of quartz towards the microshear zone shows a progressive misorientation from the host grain, by subgrain rotation recrystallization, to a nearly random CPO possibly related to grain boundary sliding. These ultrafine aggregates appear to be typically associated with pseudotachylytes in nature. We refer the crystal plastic deformation of quartz accompanied by dramatic grain size refinement to the coseismic stages of fault slip due to high differential stress and temperature transients induced by frictional heating. Microshear zones localized on precursory fractures developed during the stages of earthquake rupture propagation and the very initial stages of fault slip. Thermal models indicate that the process of recrystallization, including recovery processes, occurred in a time lapse of a few tens of seconds.     

Immiscible sulfide droplets in pseudotachylyte: Evidence for high temperature (> 1200 °C) melts

In the North Cascade Mountains, Washington, rocks that underwent friction melting commonly contained sulfide minerals, mostly pyrrhotite and pyrite. During pseudotachylyte melt formation, sulfides melted to form immiscible sulfide droplets present in five distinct textural settings. The largest droplets formed through melting of lithic clasts, whereas micron-scale sulfide droplets are common in many of the pseudotachylytes veins.Microprobe analysis indicates that nearly all droplets are pyrrhotite. The disappearance of pyrite indicates that melt temperatures must have exceeded 750 °C, but other indications suggest that the melt temperature must have been much higher. The extremely common presence of pyrrhotite droplets suggests that pyrrhotite from the protolith melted, requiring a minimum melt temperature of 1200 °C. In some samples, evidence for fluid-rich bubbles, and possible silicate spherules indicates three coexisting immiscible phases within the silicate melt. The presence of sulfide droplets appears to be common, especially in relatively low oxygen-fugacity melts that formed at shallow crustal levels. This can provide a good textural marker of melting and therefore of pseudotachylyte formation, especially where other indications of melting (i.e., high temperature microlites, vesicles, etc.) are lacking, and illustrates the extreme temperatures possible along frictionally sliding surfaces during seismic events.     

The key role of mica during igneous concentration of tantalum

Igneous rocks with high Ta concentrations share a number of similarities such as high Ta/Nb, low Ti, LREE and Zr concentrations and granitic compositions. These features can be traced through fractionated granitic series. Formation of Ta-rich melts begins with anatexis in the presence of residual biotite, followed by magmatic crystallization of biotite and muscovite. Crystallization of biotite and muscovite increases Ta/Nb and reduces the Ti content of the melt. Titanium-bearing oxides such as rutile and titanite are enriched in Ta and have the potential to deplete Ta at early stages of fractionation. However, mica crystallization suppresses their saturation and allows Ta to increase in the melt. Saturation with respect to Ta and Nb minerals occurs at the latest stages of magmatic crystallization, and columbite can originate from recrystallization of mica. We propose a model for prediction of intrusion fertility for Ta.     

Vein-plus-wall-rock melting mechanisms in the lithosphere and the origin of potassic alkaline magmas

A model is developed for the origin of ultrapotassic melts by melting of veined lithosphere; the veins are rich in clinopyroxene and mica, whereas the wall-rocks consist principally of peridotites. The veins originate by solidification of low-degree melts which are themselves the results of earlier, deeper, multistage processes ultimately due to the presence of a transition zone between large-scale channelled and porous flow regimes. The melting event producing the ultrapotassic magma begins in the veins due to the concentration of hydrous phases and incompatible elements, but spreads to include the surrounding wall-rocks by a combination of two mechanisms. The alkaline magma composition is thus a hybrid of vein (V) and wall-rock (W) components.

The melt hybridization mechanisms are: (i) Solid-solution melting: Minerals which from extensive solid-solutions are abundant in the vein assemblages (Cr/Al spinel, F/OH mica, amphibole and apatite). The breakdown of these phases take place over a temperature range between the solidus of the vein assemblage and the elimination of the more refractory end-members. This process bridges the temperature gap between the solid of vein and wall-rock, so that a melt component from the wall-rock is added to that from the vein before elimination of all vein minerals. Phlogopite forms the most effective of these sliding reactions, resulting in its stability at near-liquids temperatures in experiments. (ii) Dissolution of wall-rock minerals: The initial melt fraction in the vein infiltrates the surrounding wall-rock due to the dominance of surface energy minimization on melt flow at the intergranular scale. Following infiltration, dissolution of wall-rock minerals occurs at temperatures lower than their melting temperatures, thus imparting a refractory wall-rock component to the melt composition. Dissolution of olivine and/or orthopyroxene occurs preferentially, since these minerals are furthest from equilibrium with the strongly alkaline, vein-derived melt.

Remobilisation of several generations of veins explains the occurrence within a restricted space and time of rocks bearing chemical characteristics which are generally thought to indicate contrasting tectonic settings (e.g. central Italy). The ultrapotassic rocks are explained as being dominanyly vein-derived (i.e. high V/W ratio): further dilution of the V-component by wall-rock, supplemented by asthenospheric melt in advanced cases, leads to the production of more voluminous basaltic rocks bearing incompatible element signatures reminiscent of those of ultrapotassic rocks.     

Pseudotachylite from the Main Zone of the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, northern Japan

Pseudotachylite veins have been found in the mylonite zone of the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, northern Japan. They are associated with faults with WNW-ESE to ENE-WSW or NE-SW trends which make a conjugate set, cutting foliations of the host mylonitic rocks with high obliquity. The mylonitic rocks comprise greenschist facies to prehnite-pumpellyite facies mineral assemblages. The mode of occurrence of the pseudotachylite veins indicates that they were generated on surfaces of the faults and were intruded as injection veins along microfractures in the host rocks during brittle deformation in near-surface environments. An analysis of the deformational and metamorphic history of the Hidaka Main Zone suggests that the ambient rock temperature was 200–300° C immediately before the formation of the Hidaka pseudotachylite. Three textural types of veins are distinguished: cryptocrystalline, microcrystalline and glassy. The cryptocrystalline or glassy type often occupies the marginal zones of the microcrystalline-type veins. The microcrystalline type is largely made up of quench microlites of orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, biotite, plagioclase and opaque minerals with small amounts of amphibole microlites. The interstices of these microlites are occupied by glassy and/or cryptocrystalline materials. The presence of microlites and glasses in the pseudotachylite veins suggests that the pseudotachylites are the products of rapid cooling of silicate melts at depths of less than 5 km. The bulk chemical composition of the pseudotachylite veins is characterized by low SiO₂ and a high water content and is very close to that of the host mylonitic rocks. This indicates that the pseudotachylite was formed by virtual total melting of the host rocks with sufficient hydrous mineral phases. Local chemical variation in the glassy parts of the pseudotachylite veins may be due to either crystallization of quench microlites or the disequilibrium nature of melting of mineral fragments and incomplete mixing of the melts. Pyroxene microlites show a crystallization trend from hypersthene through pigeonite to subcalcic augite with unusually high Al contents. The presence of pigeonite and high-Al pyroxene microlites, of hornblende and biotite microlites and rare plagioclase microlites may indicate the high temperature and high water content of the melt which formed the pseudotachylite veins. The melt temperatures were estimated to be up to 1100° C using a two-pyroxene geothermometer. Using published data relating water solubilities in high-temperature andesitic magmas to pressure, a depth estimate of about 4 km is inferred for the Hidaka pseudotachylites. Evidence derived from pseudotachylites in the Hidaka metamorphic belt supports the conclusion that pseudotachylite is formed by frictional melting along fault surfaces at shallow depths from rocks containing hydrous minerals.     

Friction in faulted rock at high temperature and pressure

Two hundred observations of frictional behavior of seven low-porosity silicate rocks were made at temperatures to 700°C and pressures from 2.5 to 6 kbar. For all rocks except one, peridotite, stick-slip occurred at low temperature and gave way to stable sliding at some high temperature, different for each rock. These differences could be related to the presence or absence of minerals such as amphibole, mica, or serpentine. Up to some temperature, depending on rock type, the friction stress was relatively unaffected by temperature. The shear stress decreased at higher temperature, and in some cases such decrease was related to the coincidence of fracture and friction strength. While somewhat dependent on rock type, the friction stress for the seven rocks studied was about the same, within 10–15%. Up to 265°C, water had little effect on the frictional behavior of faulted granite at 3 kbar effective pressure. The frictional stresses measured in the laboratory were significantly higher than estimated for natural faults. This difference could be accounted for by high pore pressure or weak alteration materials in the natural fault zone.     

江南造山带基底变质沉积岩中锂元素分布和富集机制及对锂成矿的制约

内容提要:江南造山带是我国重要的稀有金属成矿带,已发现多处与锂相关的花岗伟晶岩型稀有金属矿床。锂等稀有金属元素在源区基底岩石中的富集是花岗伟晶岩型锂稀有金属矿床成矿的物质基础,但是江南造山带基底岩石中锂的分布及其富集机制仍不清楚。本文详细调查研究了江南造山带东段新元古代冷家溪群、双桥山群、溪口岩群和板溪群变质沉积岩和星子杂岩。这些基底变质岩的岩石类型包括变质砂岩、泥质板岩、千枚岩和云母片岩以及少量片麻岩。地球化学分析结果显示,冷家溪群、双桥山群和溪口岩群变质沉积岩具有相似的成分,变质砂岩和云母片岩-片麻岩整体上比泥质板岩和千枚岩具有较高的Si O₂含量,较低的Ti O₂、Al₂O₃、K₂O、Mg O和TFe₂O₃含量。泥质板岩和千枚岩含有更高的稀有金属元素含量,其中锂含量达到61.8×10^-6,而变质砂岩的锂丰度为44.9×10^-6。板溪群具有最低的稀有金属元素含量(Li=30.8×10     

东天山平顶山巨眼球状片麻状花岗岩特征及成因

本文以东天山平顶山岩体为例,探讨中天山晋宁旋回晚期巨眼球状片麻状花岗岩的特征及其形成机制。野外地质关系、岩相学、岩石化学、稀土元素、微量元素和同位素研究表明,平顶山岩体是岛弧钙碱性火山-沉积岩系经原地改造的产物,其Rb-Sr等时线年龄为927 Ma。花岗岩形成作用的动力、热力来源可能与碰撞后天山岩石圈的拆沉有关。拆沉导致的底侵和内侵引发了地壳岩石的韧性剪切,剪切后的岩石有利于部分熔融、熔体-流体运移和化学反应,而熔体和流体的作用反过来又会促进韧性剪切,并将较浅层次的变形变质岩石改造为片麻状花岗岩。平顶山岩体的成岩作用体现了部分熔融、韧性剪切和流体作用的相互反馈,也是这些作用的共同产物。这种原地片麻状花岗岩的成岩过程主要为深源熔体和流体与原岩的相互作用,并使原岩发生不同程度的部分熔融,因而其地球化学特征同时受到原岩和外来熔体-流体的控制。底侵和内侵是造山过程晚期-期后挤压-拉张转折期地壳垂向增生的重要方式,而平顶山这类片麻状花岗岩则是这种垂向增生的产物。     

General characteristics of the geochemical evolution of silicic melts during the development of massive sulfide magmatic ore systems: Evidence from the investigation of melt inclusions

The investigation of melt inclusions in the minerals of volcanic rocks from the massive sulfide deposits of Siberia and the Urals revealed some specific features in the development of their magmatic ore systems. It was shown that the petrochemical and rare earth element compositions of melt inclusions reflect the geodynamic conditions of their formation: island arc conditions for the massive sulfide deposits of Rudny Altai, eastern Tuva, and the Salair Range and a back arc basin environment for the Yaman-Kasy deposit. The silicic melts of inclusions from the volcanic rocks of massive sulfide deposits show some specific features with respect to the contents of volatile components. In all of the ore deposits studied, fluorine content was always low (0.03–0.08 wt %), whereas chlorine content (0.13–0.28 wt %) was higher than the average value for silicic melts (0.17 wt %). There is a strong differentiation of water content in melt inclusions, both between deposits and between various volcanics from a single deposit. Ore-bearing melts show the highest water contents of 3.34–4.07 wt %. High Cu contents in the silicic melts of the Yubileinoe and Kyzyl-Tashtyg deposits (up to 7118 and 3228 ppm, respectively) may indicate the affinity of some ore components to particular silicic magmas. This is supported by the elevated contents of Cu in the porphyry Cu deposits of Romania (Valea Morii), Mongolia (Bayan Ula), and Bolivia. On the other hand, the silicic melts of inclusions from the molybdenum-uranium deposit of the Strel’tsovka ore field show high contents of another group of ore components (U and F).     

Can pseudotachylytes be used to infer earthquake source parameters? An example of limitations in the study of exhumed faults

Tectonic pseudotachylytes might be used to constrain earthquake source parameters, such as dynamic shear stress resistance, average dynamic friction and slip-weakening distance. Estimation of dynamic shear stress resistance and dynamic friction from field studies is based on the assumption that the volume of melt produced during coseismic slip is proportional to the frictional work converted to heat on the fault surface. Conditions conducive to a realistic estimate of dynamic shear resistance are: (i) the presence of large outcrop exposures that allow for estimation of the volume of pseudotachylyte; (ii) the presence of structural markers offset by faults in order to relate the displacement accommodated by the fault with the volume of melt produced; (iii) data that provide an estimate of the initial melt temperature; and (iv) determination of host-rock temperature and pressure conditions that may have existed during seismic faulting. An independent indication that steady-state friction in the presence of melts might be achieved during coseismic slip arises from the dependence of the fractal dimension of the fault profile (intersection of the fault surface with the outcrop surface) with displacement. This relation could also indicate the slip-weakening distance (Hirose, T., Shimamoto, T., 2003. Fractal dimension of molten surfaces as a possible parameter to infer the slip-weakening distance of faults from natural pseudotachylytes. Journal of Structural Geology 25, 1569–1574).The above conditions are all satisfied in the case of the Gole Larghe Fault Zone, which consists of hundreds subparallel strike-slip faults that cut tonalites of the Adamello batholith (Italy). The thickness of pseudotachylyte-bearing faults increases with displacement. From displacement/thickness ratios and energy balance calculations, we determined the dynamic shear resistance for several pseudotachylyte-bearing faults. In the same faults, the fractal dimension of the fault profile increases from 1.0 to 1.16 with displacement. This was also observed in experiments where steady-state friction in the presence of melt was achieved (Hirose, T., Shimamoto, T., 2003. Fractal dimension of molten surfaces as a possible parameter to infer the slip-weakening distance of faults from natural pseudotachylytes. Journal of Structural Geology 25, 1569–1574). However, we will show that the estimate of the dynamic shear stress resistance, average dynamic friction and slip-weakening distance in the studied faults is limited by the uncertainties to attribute the measured displacement to a single seismic rupture. Since many pseudotachylytes in the upper seismogenic crust overprint preexisting cataclasites, it is suggested that future field and experimental work should be addressed to determine microstructural indicators (i.e. evolution of cataclastic fabric with displacement) within cataclasites, which might constrain the contribution of the cataclastic, pre-pseudotachylyte displacement to the total displacement accommodated by the fault.     

Compositions of magmas,formation conditions,and genesis of carbonate-bearing ijolites and carbonatites of the Belaya Zima alkaline carbonatite complex,eastern Sayan

Based on the investigation of melt inclusions using electron and ion microprobe analysis, we estimated the composition, evolution, and formation conditions of magmas responsible for the calcite-bearing ijolites and carbonatites of the Belaya Zima alkaline carbonatite complex (eastern Sayan, Russia). Primary melt and coexisting crystalline inclusions were found in the nepheline and calcite of these rocks. Diopside, amphibole (?), perovskite, potassium feldspar, apatite, calcite, pyrrhotite, and titanomagnetite were identified among the crystalline inclusions. The melt inclusions in nepheline from the ijolites are completely crystallized. The crystalline daughter phases of these inclusions are diopside, phlogopite, apatite, calcite, magnetite, and cuspidine. During thermometric experiments with melt inclusions in nepheline, the complete homogenization of the inclusions was attained through the dissolution of a gas bubble at temperatures of 1120–1130°C. The chemical analysis of glasses from the homogenized melt inclusions in nepheline of the ijolites revealed significant variations in the content of components: from 36 to 48 wt % SiO₂, from 9 to 21 wt % Al₂O₃, from 8 to 25 wt % CaO, and from 0.6 to 7 wt % MgO. All the melts show very high contents of alkalis, especially sodium. According to the results of ion microprobe analysis, the average content of water in the melts is no higher than a few tenths of a percent. The most salient feature of the melt inclusions is the extremely high content of Nb and Zr. The glasses of melt inclusions are also enriched in Ta, Th, and light rare earth elements but depleted in Ti and Hf. Primary melt inclusions in calcite from the carbonatites contain a colorless glass and daughter phlogopite, garnet, and diopside. The silicate glass from the melt inclusions in calcite of the carbonatite is chemically similar to the glasses of homogenized melt inclusions in nepheline from the ijolites. An important feature of melt inclusions in calcite of the carbonatites is the presence in the glass of carbonate globules corresponding to calcite in composition. The investigation of melt inclusions in minerals of the ijolites and carbonatites and the analysis of the alkaline and ore-bearing rocks of the Belaya Zima Massif provided evidence for the contribution of crystallization differentiation and silicate-carbonate liquid immiscibility to the formation of these rocks. Using the obtained trace-element compositions of glasses of homogenized melt inclusions and various alkaline rocks and carbonatites, we determined to a first approximation the compositions of mantle sources responsible for the formation of the rock association of the Belaya Zima alkaline-carbonatite complex. The alkaline rocks and carbonatites were derived from the depleted mantle affected by extensive metasomatism. It is supposed that carbonate melts enriched in sodium and calcium were the main agents of mantle metasomatism.     

Structural and chemical evolution of pseudotachylytes during seismic events

Summary The structural and chemical characteristics of pseudotachylytes generated during seismic events along a Pan-African fault zone in Kenya document an evolution consisting of two principal steps. In the first stage, crushing of the host rock during the onset of frictional sliding led to preferential disruption of biotite and hornblende, due to their low fracture toughness and low shear yield strength. The products of this first stage are preserved as thin cataclasite zones along the margins of the pseudotachylyte veins. Melting of the crushed host rock occurred during the second stage, due to the heat generated by frictional sliding, grain size reduction, and the release of water from biotite and hornblende. The chemical and mineralogical composition of the cataclasite and the increasing temperature during seismic slip were the main factors that controlled the composition of two chemically distinct pseudotachylyte melts. During rapid cooling, amphibole microlites (melt 1) and plagioclase microlites (melt 2) crystallized from the two pseudotachylyte melts.

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Die strukturelle und chemische Entwicklung von Pseudotachylyten während seismischer Ereignisse

Zusammenfassung Die strukturellen und chemischen Eigenschaften von Pseudotachylyten, die durch seismische Ereignisse entlang einer Pan-Afrikanischen Störungszone in Kenia erzeugt wurden, dokumentieren eine zweistufige Entwicklung. Im ersten Stadium, zu Beginn des Reibungsgleitens, führte die mechanische Zerkleinerung des Ausgangsgesteins zu einem bevorzugten Zerbrechen von Biotit und Hornblende, aufgrund ihrer geringen Bruch- und Scherfestigkeit. Die Produkte dieses ersten Stadiums sind in Form dünner Kataklasitzonen an den Rändern der Pseudotachylitgänge erhalten. Während des zweiten Stadiums kam es aufgrund der Reibungswärme, der Kornverkleinerung und dem bei der Zerstörung von Biotit und Hornblende freigesetzten Wasser zum Aufschmelzen des zermahlenen Gesteins. Die chemische und mineralogische Zusammensetzung der Kataklasite und die zunehmende Temperatur während des seismischen Gleitens waren die wesentlichen Faktoren, die die Zusammensetzung zweier chemisch unterschiedlicher Schmelzen kontrollierten. Während der schnellen Abkühlung kristallisierten Amphibol-Mikrolithe (Schmelze 1) und Plagioklas-Mikrolithe (Schmelze 2) aus den beiden Pseudotachylit-Schmelzen.

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With 8 Figures     

岩石摩擦滑动变形演化及声发射特征研究

进行岩石摩擦滑动变形演化过程的声发射特征试验研究。以数字散斑相关方法和声发射系统为试验监测手段,采用双面剪切模型试验方法,开展界面摩擦滑动速率与声发射振铃计数、界面摩擦滑动位移与声发射累计能量、试件变形能密度与声发射b值的对应关系研究。结果表明：（1）声发射振铃计数演化受岩石界面摩擦滑动速率影响,界面摩擦滑动速率的突变与声发射振铃计数激增有较好对应关系;（2）界面摩擦滑动位移与摩擦滑动过程中声发射累计能量演化趋势具有较好的对应关系,可以利用声发射累计能量对岩石摩擦滑动位移的变化趋势进行定性判断;（3）通过声发射b值演化分析可以得出,在剪应力缓慢增长阶段,界面摩擦滑动以随机分布的小尺度微破裂为主;在剪应力线性增长阶段后期,界面摩擦滑动以锁固段的大尺度微破裂为主;在剪应力波动增长阶段,岩石摩擦滑动失稳既可能是由小尺度微破裂为主引发的状态转化,又可能是由以锁固段大尺度微破裂为主引发的稳定状态转换。     

Partial melting and melt segregation in footwall units within the contact aureole of the Sudbury Igneous Complex (North and East Ranges,Sudbury structure), with implications for their relationship to footwall Cu–Ni–PGE mineralization

We performed detailed field and drill core mapping of partial melting features and felsic rocks (footwall granophyres, FWGRs) representing segregated and crystallized partial melts within the contact aureole of the Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) in the 1.85 Ga Sudbury impact structure. Our results, derived from mapping within the North (Windy Lake, Foy, Wisner areas) and East Ranges (Skynner, Frost areas) of the structure, reveal that partial melting was widespread in both felsic and mafic footwall units up to distances of 500 m from the basal contact of the SIC. Texturally and mineralogically, significant differences exist between rocks formed by partial melting within and between localities. In general, however, melt bodies are dominated by different quartz-feldspar intergrowths (e.g. granophyric, graphic) and miarolitic cavities up to 5 cm in diameter. Major and trace element compositions of Wisner and Frost FWGRs imply that they crystallized from melts dominantly derived from partial melting of felsic Levack Gneiss and Cartier granitoid rocks, as well as from gabbroic rocks only at Frost. These results accord with our observations on in situ partial melting features and crystallized melt of microscopic scale in both felsic and mafic rocks. We conclude that partial melting occurred at a pressure of 1.5 ± 0.5 kbar and at temperatures up to 750°C in the Wisner area and up to 900°C in the Frost and Windy Lake areas. Segregations of partial melt into veins and dikes are present in all localities, and were promoted by deformation of the Sudbury structure in the Penokean orogeny as indicated by dominant strike directions. Whereas veins and dikes reflect brittle conditions during melt migration, sheared melt pods in the Sudbury breccia matrix indicate ductile conditions during their crystallization. Our results suggest a close genetic association of partial melting, melt segregation, and hydrothermal processes responsible for remobilization of Cu–Ni–PGE sulphides into and within the SIC footwall.     

甘肃小西弓金矿地质地球化学特征及成因探讨

小西弓金矿产于敦煌岩群的低绿片岩相变质岩层中，受NWW向脆韧性剪切带控制。二云母征岩不仅是矿源层，而且还是赋矿围岩。成矿流体主要是印支期岩浆期后含金热液，还包括少量变质水和大气降水，淋滤韧性剪切带内岩石中的Au元素并在有利的部位成矿。