探地雷达在探测玉树走滑断裂带活动性中的初步应用

探地雷达具有快速、检测范围广、探测深度深、分辨率高及对地表环境无破坏等特点,在活动断层探测应用中具有很大的优势。在简要介绍玉树走滑断裂带活动性的基础上,选择高分辨率的探地雷达对隆宝、昔日达和盘琼沟处断裂带附近的活动断层进行探测。采用时间域有限差分法建立活动断层的数值模型对其雷达波响应特征进行模拟,分析断层在探地雷达剖面上的反射波特征。根据断层的反射波特征解译探地雷达图像,判断断层的位置、走向及空间展布。结合探槽开挖对比,探地雷达图像的解译结果与探槽开挖后的断裂带剖面展示的断层活动性质基本一致。根据隆宝、昔日达和盘琼沟处的探地雷达图像与探槽剖面上断层反射波特征的对比研究,解译了玉树地震震中位置探地雷达剖面上的断层展布。研究表明,探地雷达是一种快速探测活动断层的有效方法,尤其是在地表破裂不明显的区域,不仅可以准确地判断断层的位置、走向及空间展布,还可以将断裂带附近地下岩层的层位信息及探槽断面之外的地表下图像清晰地呈现出来,为以后运用探地雷达探测活动断层提供参考。     

Deformation style in the damage zone of the Mondy fault: GPR evidence (Tunka basin,southern East Siberia)

The Mondy strike-slip fault connects the W-E Tunka and N-S Hovsgol basins on the southern flank of the Baikal rift system. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys in its damage zone provide constraints on thicknesses, dips, and plunges of fault planes, as well as on the amount and sense of vertical slip. Strike-slip faulting in the southern segment of the Mondy fault within the territory of Russia bears a normal slip component of motion along the W-E and NW planes. These motions have produced negative flower structures in shallow crust appearing as grabens upon Pleistocene fluvioglacial terraces. The amount of normal slip estimated from the displacement of reflection events varies over the area and reaches its maximum of 3.4 m near Mondy Village. In the Kharadaban basin link, left-lateral strike slip displaces valleys of ephemeral streams to 22 m, while normal slip detected by GPR reaches 2.2 m; this normal-to-strike slip ratio corresponds to a direction of ~ 6° to the horizon. The angles of dips of faults are in the range 75°-79°; the thicknesses of fault planes marked by low- or high-frequency anomalies in GPR records vary from 2.5 to 17.0 m along strike and decrease with depth within a few meters below the surface, which is common to near-surface coseismic motions. Many ruptures fail to reach the surface but appear rather as sinkholes localized mainly in fault hanging walls. The deformation style in the damage zone of the Mondy fault bears impact of the NW Yaminshin fault lying between its two segments. According to photoelasticity, the stress field changes locally at the intersection of the two faults, under NE compression at 38°, till the inverse orientations of principal compression and extension stresses. This stress pattern leads to a combination of normal and left-lateral strike slip components.     

Ground-penetrating radar detection of small-scale channels,joints and faults in the unconsolidated sediments of the Atlantic Coastal Plain

The geological characterization of the shallow subsurface in the unconsolidated sediments of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and other unconsolidated sediment regimes, may involve jointing, faulting, and channeling not readily detectable by conventional drilling and mapping. A knowledge of these features is required in environmental, geotechnical, and geomorphological studies. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) may be used to routinely map these structures. Three principal shallow subsurface features are readily detectable using GPR: paleochannels, joints or fractures, and faults. The detection of paleochannels is dependent on the scale of the GPR survey and the attitude of the channel within the survey area. Channel morphological features such as scour surfaces, point bars, and thalwegs are observable. Joints and fractures are more difficult to detect depending upon size, patterns, orientation, and fill material. Vertical joints may not be visible to radar unless they are wider than the sampling interval or are filled with radar-opaque materials such as limonite. Angled joints or fractures may be distinguished by an apparent continuous reflector on the radar profile. Faulting on radar profiles may be observed by the offset of reflectors, the image of the fault plane, or the coherent interpretation of a fault system.     

Collapse hazard assessment in evaporitic materials from ground penetrating radar: a case study

Evaporitic materials have been studied by means of ground penetrating radar (GPR) in order to evaluate the collapse hazard. The obtained 200 MHz GPR profiles show a low signal-noise ratio over the first 3 m depth, where well-defined and continuous reflectors can be observed. Between 3 and 4.5 m depth, the signal to noise ratio decreases due to attenuation of the electromagnetic (EM) waves. As a result, reflectors located deeper than 3 m become more discontinuous and poorly defined. GPR profiles show trails of continuous and subhorizontal reflectors, with a slightly undulated and irregular geometry. Although some of these reflectors laterally vanish or seem to disappear, sudden interruptions or hyperbolic reflections that could be originated by the occurrence of cavities have not been detected. These reflectors have been interpreted as corresponding to several evaporitic layers (gypsum) that constitute the main lithology in the area. Clear interruptions of reflectors have only been observed in some GPR profiles, and they could be attributed to small (1–2 m long) subvertical faults, with only a few centimetres offset. These faults may be generated by the accommodation of the evaporitic layers to local collapses affecting deeper materials.     

Ground penetrating radar and 2D electric resistivity studies for tracing hydrocarbon leakage site,close to Abha City: a case study

This work presents the application of the ground-penetrating radar (GPR) method and electric resistivity tomography (ERT) technique in outlining a zone of contamination due to the light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) plume underground in the area of an impacted fuel station, close to Abha City. The GPR has been performed using SIR3000 unit with the 100 and 400 MHz antennas. The main objective of the GPR survey was to evaluate the lateral extension of contamination. The complex GPR signature of the plume was well characterized. Low reflectivity zone corresponds to hydrocarbon vapor phase in the vadose zone. Enhanced reflections are associated with free and residual products in the fractured saturated zone directly above the water table. An electric resistivity tomography (ERT) survey was performed on four profiles within the site to investigate the vertical and horizontal extent of the contamination plume and to define the bottom of the landfill. The 2D electric profiles show the presence of low-resistivity (4O to 37 Ω m) anomalies that refers to the presence of accumulated hydrocarbons. From the interpretation of the GPR and ERT profile, it was possible to locate the top and bottom of the contamination plume of the waste disposal site. The radar signal penetrated deep enough and enabled the identification of a second reflector at approximately 10-m deep, interpreted as the hard basement surface which causes the strong amplitude reflection in the GPR profile. The results of GPR and ERT showed good agreement.     

Investigation of the Kumdanlı and surrounding faults on the Eğirdir Lake by conducting ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles

A ground penetrating radar (GPR) survey was performed on the E?irdir Lake to obtain the structural properties of Kumdanl? and surrounding faults. GPR data was collected along ten profiles in various directions by using 100–200-MHz GPR antennas. The radar sections showed that the Kumdanl? Fault, SW-NE in direction, and also some other neighboring NW-SE normal faults have played an active role in forming the E?irdir-Hoyran Lakes. The deformation and the geometry obtained from the results show that the Kumdanl? Fault is a sinistral strike-slip fault including oblique and segmented displacements. The other faults (Kemerdam? and Akkeçili) have mainly normal fault systems. Their trends are generally NW-SE in direction. It is also observed that they are younger than the Kumdanl? Fault system. These fault properties demonstrate the E?irdir Lake side has an extensional structure trending SW-NE.     

Stress tensor and focal mechanisms along the Dead Sea fault and related structural elements based on seismological data

The Dead Sea fault is among the largest active strike–slip fault of the world. This study is focused on the southern part of this fault, from the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Aqaba, as monitored mainly by the Jordanian and Israeli seismic networks. The data of arrival times and polarities allowed relocation of earthquakes with a better azimuthal coverage and computation of focal mechanisms. This last step has been realized by inverting the polarities to determine a unique stress tensor for the region and the compatible focal mechanisms. Inversion with different subsets of the data set, based on tectonic regionalization, has also been performed to evaluate the impact of each cluster of earthquakes on the global solution. The population of focal mechanisms is clearly dominated by strike–slip events, with the notable exception of a cluster of earthquakes, south of the Dead Sea, which displays several normal focal mechanisms. This last cluster forces σ₁ to be vertical and σ₂ to be horizontal. A large number of fault planes, however, are close to the vertical, inhibiting the action of the vertical component of the stress tensor, and acting like under strike–slip stress regime. We observed a good agreement between the location of the earthquakes and the active faults, based on geological data. In addition, there is a good agreement between the fault plane solutions and the orientation of the active faults.     

地质雷达探测技术在浅覆盖活动构造区填图中的应用——以宁夏青铜峡地区1:5万新构造与活动构造区填图为例

地质雷达探测以其分辨率高、定位准确、快速经济、灵活方便、剖面直观、实时图像显示等优点,成为地质调查中广泛使用的一种探测方法。本次宁夏青铜峡地区1∶5万新构造与活动构造区填图中运用地质雷达探测技术对第四系和隐伏断层进行了探测。结果表明,40 MHz地质雷达可以有效地探测地表以下30 m内的第四系结构,可清晰地识别出3套第四纪地层。这一地层结构划分被第四系浅钻证实,其为第四系全新统灵武组,自下而上由泥岩、砂砾石层和含砾的砂或泥等3套地层组成。对测区主干断裂——柳木高断裂南段的地质雷达探测表明,断裂带表现为近地表发散向下汇聚的正花状结构,这与探槽揭露的特征一致,表明地质雷达探测可以准确标定隐伏断层平面位置与垂向精细结构。本次宁夏地质填图证实,地质雷达技术是浅覆盖活动构造区进行隐伏断裂调查和第四纪地层层序划分的可行、高效、便捷的技术方法之一。     

THREE-DIMENSIONAL DEFORMATION ALONG THE ALTYN TAGH FAULT ZONE AND UPLIFT OF THE ALTYN MOUNTAIN, NORTHERN TIBET

THREE-DIMENSIONAL DEFORMATION ALONG THE ALTYN TAGH FAULT ZONE AND UPLIFT OF THE ALTYN MOUNTAIN, NORTHERN TIBET     

A GPR study of subsidence-creep-fault processes in Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico

In 1983, inhabitants of the City of Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico, began to observe a series of differential settlements causing damages to constructions along linear trends parallel to a system of regional faults. The same phenomenon occurs in others cities of the Mexican Volcanic Belt (MVB), such as Celaya, Aguascalientes, and Querétaro, and is linked to a structurally controlled subsidence, caused by groundwater withdrawal, and the presence of geological faults. We define this subsidence type as Subsidence-Creep-Fault Processes (SCFP), based on the necessary elements for their generation, and we studied them through geophysical and geotechnical techniques. In Morelia, the geophysical investigations have been carried out using ground-penetrating radar (GPR). GPR profiles, perpendicular to the axis of the surface fault generated by the SCFP were carried out. The common-offset single-fold profiling was used, with a central frequency of 50 MHz. In all cases it has been possible to visualize a fault plane dividing two blocks, the presence of synthetic and antithetic faults, influence zones from 20 m to 40 m, and a maximum “net throw” of 4 m. Exploration trenches followed the same direction of the profiles obtained with GPR (perpendicular to the axis of the surface fault). These trenches exposed a fault plane dividing two blocks with different lithology, generating a maximum “net throw” of 4.40 m; as well they help in the determination of influence zones that varied from 14 m to 40 m.     

Concealed thrusts in the Middle Gangetic plain,India – A ground penetrating radar study proves the truth against the geomorphic features supporting normal faulting

As no evidence for thrusting has yet been reported from the Indo-Gangetic plain so, the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) has been considered to be the southern most limit of the Siwaliks to the Indo-Gangetic plain. The present study highlights the thrusting activities between the Gandak and Kosi megafan area in the Middle Gangetic plain. As these thrust sheets are concealed beneath thick sediment cover, direct surficial studies of the discontinuity planes are not possible. Further, the topographic breaks formed by the backward erosion of the uplifted thrust faces resemble normal faults with hanging walls to south. Due to gradual decreasing upliftment and/or erosion from north to south, the area shows a step like topographic appearance. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) studies reveal the concealed thrust planes beneath the sediments and the topographic breaks looking like normal faults are interpreted to be the relief created by backward erosion of the thrust sheets along with the overlying sediments. Out of four GPR profiles taken using 100 MHz antennae, three are across the topographic breaks along which most of the terminal fans are formed and one across the basement fault to study its subsurface nature. Initially GPR failed to strike any subsurface discontinuities at the topographic breaks. However, at certain distance to the south of the topographic breaks, GPR was able to strike the northerly dipping subsurface discontinuity planes. By combining the seismological signatures (distribution of earthquake epicenters) with geomorphology, these discontinuities are identified as thrusts. The GPR profiles show a gradual decrease of dip of the thrust planes from north to south across the area. Hence, by the geomorphology, seismological behavior, topography, orientation and continuity, other topographic breaks can be compared with the proven thrusts. GPR study on the basement fault revealed that the NE–SW trending basement faults are not active in the area. The compression between the South Muzaffarpur fault and the peninsular shield led to the generation of the N–S trending extensional Hathauri–Simariaghat fault with downthrown block towards east. Due to depth penetration limit, the GPR study was confined within 15 m depth. The presence of the discontinuity planes up to the base of the GPR profiles indicate their continuity at least up to the base of Holocene sediments. Although this study brought out the presence of concealed thrusts to the south of the HFT, more detailed work is needed further to study their depth extension, relation to the basement and their implication in Himalayan tectonics in a broad manner. At present, we consider these thrusts to be the splays of the HFT. For confirmation, we propose to carryout detail seismic surveys in future research work.     

基于构造活动历史的活断层工程避让研究

活断层工程避让在本质上属于工程抗断问题,其目的是减少活断层未来发生地表破裂时对建筑物的破坏.不是所有活断层都能产生地表破裂,只有地震活断层才是工程避让的对象.各种研究方法确定的活断层工程避让安全距离,是否适用于某一具体的活断层,尚需对活断层本身开展相关研究.本文基于活断层研究的基本方法,分别以贺兰山东麓断裂和银川隐伏断裂为例,通过对活断层构造活动历史的分析,以活断层的过去预测未来,为裸露和隐伏活断层的工程避让提供依据.对裸露活断层而言,采用地震地质填图、槽探、断层陡坎地貌调查的方法,鉴定其是否为地震活断层,古地震和断层陡坎地貌的原地复发特征是确定工程避让位置的依据,探槽剖面断层带宽度及断层陡坎宽度可作为避让距离的参考.对隐伏活动断裂而言,首先应通过多种手段进行断层定位,槽探和钻探是鉴定地震活断层并进行构造活动历史分析的基础.古地震事件的原地复发、以及钻探剖面不同深度不同沉积时期的地层界线的断距变化是分析未来地表破裂位置的主要依据,已有断层面在地表延伸的位置是下次地震地表破裂发生的位置,是工程避让的参照.通过分析,认为前人统计的15m避让距离适用于贺兰山东麓断裂和银川隐伏断裂,银川隐伏断裂考虑最大定位误差后的避让距离为40m.     

综合多频率地质雷达天线探测活断层浅层结构——以玉树活动断裂为例

地质雷达技术具有操作性强、分辨率高、探测深度深、对地表环境无破坏和可重复探测等特点,在活断层探测中具有很大的优势。为验证综合多中心频率地质雷达天线探测活断层地下浅层结构效果,以民主村处发育的玉树活动断裂为研究对象,采用25 MHz、100 MHz、250 MHz和500 MHz中心频率的地质雷达天线对活断层浅层结构进行探测,并与探槽剖面进行效果对比。研究结果表明:低中心频率的地质雷达天线（25 MHz和100 MHz）可获取大范围内深度较深（约32 m）的活断层地下浅层结构的整体形态,从雷达图像上可识别出主断层分布范围、断层倾向及地下浅层结构等;而中高中心频率的地质雷达天线（250 MHz和500 MHz）则可获取局部范围内深度较浅（约3 m）的地下浅层结构,尤其是500 MHz天线。探测结果与地表构造地貌形态和探槽剖面地质构造一致,表明综合多中心频率地质雷达天线探测玉树活动断裂浅层结构的有效性和适用性,为活断层研究提供多尺度数据及方法支持。      

探地雷达(GPR)在海南岛东北部海岸带调查中的应用 *

对海南岛东北部海岸带调查采用了探地雷达(GPR)研究海岸带沙体的结构、展布和沉积序列,取得了很好的效果。文章通过和有限的露头资料对比以及对反射波形态、结构的研究,确定了海滩脊、海岸沙丘的反射特征以及潜水面的位置。雷达图像显示五龙港古海滩脊由亚水平、不连续、高振幅和透镜状反射波组成;木兰头海岸沙丘已受到人类活动的扰动,短的、陡倾斜反射可能代表未受扰动的海岸风成沙的前积层。研究表明探地雷达是一种可靠、快速和经济的地球物理方法,在砂砾质海岸可产生高质量、高分辨率和连续的反射剖面,值得加以推广。     

Visualization of tectonic structures in shallow-depth high-resolution ground-penetrating radar (GPR) profiles

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is applied to detect subsurface tectonic structures and to map the geometry of faulted blocks. Tectonic interpretations from a profile crossing the graben fault and a grid in a second-order graben structure providing a 3D data set are correlated to the structural inventory of the outcrop. Folded layers of the roll-over anticline are identified by continuous curved reflectors and an increasing dip towards the main graben fault. Faults are indicated by arrays of reflector terminations. Variations in the water and clay content caused by karstification and brecciation on fault planes are displayed by changing amplitudes of the detected signal. The 3D visualization of the second-order graben structure with a grid of GPR profiles illustrates the local stress pattern which coincides with structural observations in the outcrop and photo lineations.     

基于历史航卫片的城市“隐形”活动断层精确定位——以大同盆地水峪断裂为例

活动断层是城市地震灾害的重要风险源，准确厘定活动断层的空间几何展布是有效降低城市地震灾害和开展活动断层避让的基础。而城市化建设对原始地貌的严重改造使得原先出露地表的活动断层成为"隐形"断层，难以准确确定断层的几何展布。大同盆地中部的水峪断裂北段位于马铺山东缘，断错地貌明显，但南段进入大同市御东新区被城市建筑物覆盖，成为"隐形"断层。研究基于大同地区1965年历史航片影像资料，结合1∶10000地形图，运用航片像对和航空立体摄影的方法重建了该地区的数字高程模型（DEM）和正射影像（DOM），重点对水峪断裂"隐形"段进行识别和定位，厘定了水峪断裂断层陡坎的几何展布特征。研究结果表明，水峪断裂北段山前陡坎线性特征明显，由影像可以准确解译出断层几何展布位置；水峪断裂南段可基于2000年之前的Keyhole历史遥感影像、DOM与DEM资料，根据断层两侧的颜色差异及陡坎高度差异，精确厘定该段的断层几何展布位置；DEM提取的地形剖面表明"隐形"段陡坎高度在19 m左右。同时，基于野外调查的断层剖面与浅层人工地震剖面证明该陡坎就是水峪断裂的位置，这也表明利用历史航卫片对城市"隐形"活动断层进行精确定位的方法是可行的。该研究不仅为大同地区的地震危险性评估提供了重要依据，而且为城市"隐形"活动断层探测提供了一个新的思路和途径。      

依兰-伊通断裂新构造活动规律分析

作为郯庐断裂带北段主干的依兰-伊通断裂, 其新构造活动性与活动规律仍然存在不同的认识.本次工作通过详细的野外调查, 发现该断裂内活断层广泛存在, 由东、西两支北东走向的主干活断层构成, 沿着古近纪地堑边界断层发育.这些活断层主要呈破碎型结构, 多为逆右行平移活动.通过对这些活断层一系列实测擦痕反演应力场, 显示它们多是在东西向挤压中活动的, 而现今应力场转变为北东东-南西西向区域性挤压.依据本次野外观察与¹⁴ C定年, 并结合前人定年结果与近代地震分布, 表明依兰-伊通西支活断层的最新活动时代为全新世与晚更新世相间, 而东支活断层的最新活动时代主要为早-中更新世.依兰-伊通断裂内活断层显示了明显的差异性活动, 表现为西支的活动强度明显大于东支, 西支的最新活动时代皆晚于东支, 沿走向上活动性强、弱相间与最新活动时代不断变化, 以及近代地震活动不均一分布.它们沿走向上的分段性、差异性活动主要是因为被一系列北西向断层切断所致.     

Listric versus planar normal fault geometry: an example from the Eisenstadt-Sopron Basin (E Austria)

In a gravel pit at the eastern margin of the Eisenstadt-Sopron Basin, a satellite of Vienna Basin (Austria), Neogene sediments are exposed in the hanging wall of a major normal fault. The anticlinal structure and associated conjugated secondary normal faults were previously interpreted as a rollover anticline above a listric normal fault. The spatial orientation and distribution of sedimentary horizons and crosscutting faults were mapped in detail on a laser scan of the outcrop wall. Subsequently, in order to assess the 3D distribution and geometry of this fault system, a series of parallel ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles were recorded behind the outcrop wall. Both outcrop and GPR data were compiled in a 3D structural model, providing the basis for a kinematic reconstruction of the fault plane using balanced cross-section techniques. However, the kinematic reconstruction results in a geologically meaningless normal fault cutting down- and up-section. Additionally, no evidence for a weak layer serving as ductile detachment horizon (i.e. salt or clay horizon) can be identified in stratigraphic profiles. Instead, the observed deflection of stratigraphic horizons may be caused by a displacement gradient along a planar master fault, with a maximum displacement in the fault centre, decreasing towards the fault tips. Accordingly, the observed deflection of markers in the hanging wall—and in a nearby location in the footwall of the normal fault—is interpreted as large-scale fault drag along a planar fault that records a displacement gradient, instead of a rollover anticline related to a listric fault.     

The Portland Hills Fault: uncovering a hidden fault in Portland, Oregon using high-resolution geophysical methods

The Portland metropolitan area historically is the most seismically active region in Oregon. At least three potentially active faults are located in the immediate vicinity of downtown Portland, with the Portland Hills Fault (PHF) extending directly beneath downtown Portland. The faults are poorly understood, and the surface geologic record does not provide the information required to assess the seismic hazards associated with them. The limited geologic information stems from a surface topography that has not maintained a cumulative geologic record of faulting, in part, due to rapid erosion and deposition from late Pleistocene catastrophic flood events and a possible strike-slip component of the faults. We integrated multiple high-resolution geophysical techniques, including seismic reflection, ground penetrating radar (GPR), and magnetic methods, with regional geological and geophysical surveys to determine that the Portland Hills Fault is presently active with a zone of deformation that extends at least 400 m. The style of deformation is consistent with at least two major earthquakes in the last 12–15 ka, as confirmed by a sidehill excavation trench. High-resolution geophysical methods provide detailed images of the upper 100 m across the active fault zone. The geophysical images are critical to characterizing the structural style within the zone of deformation, and when integrated with a paleoseismic trench, can accurately record the seismic history of a region with little surface geologic exposure.     

土壤气汞探测在夏垫断裂带的应用研究

夏垫断裂带是首都圈重要的地震断裂带之一,本文运用构造地球化学对该断裂带进行研究。采用土壤中气态汞测量法在断裂带上的齐心庄和东柳河屯两个剖面进行了细致的野外现场勘测,绘制出研究区土壤气汞分布曲线图和汞含量分布立体图,对研究区断裂带空间位置及走向进行了分析,获得齐心庄和东柳河屯剖面的异常阈值分别为0.23和0.27,阈值显示的异常位置指示了断层面的位置,推测认为断裂带总体走向为45°,断裂带的规模并不大,断裂带上齐心庄剖面的活动性要强于东柳河屯,应为今后地震监测的重点。