Ocean governance in post-modern society—a geographical perspective

The contradiction between the claim for integrated management of the coastal areas by the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992), on the one hand, and the persistence of analytical epistemological approaches by the scientific community on the other, is discussed. In this context, it is emphasised how the modern approach led to the desegregation of the ocean into two realms, namely the coastal ocean subject to national jurisdiction, and the international ocean, making it difficult to design and operate integrated management. Moreover, the international ocean is vertically subdivided into two realms, namely the water column, having the status of res nullius, and the deep seabed, claimed as patrimony of mankind; hence the increasing difficulty in operating the protection of the ocean ecosystem and the efficient use of its resources while the human pressure on the ocean is growing without precedent. A positive feedback is needed between science and policy, the former being encouraged to overcome the analytical, modern approach; the latter being keen to consider the long term humankind-sensitive interest above the national interests. The role of geography in contributing to these prospects is discussed in the final part.     

Classification of marine bioregions on the east coast of South Africa

Marine bioregional planning requires a meaningful classification and spatial delineation of the ocean environment using biological and physical characteristics. The relative inaccessibility of much of the ocean and the paucity of directly measured data spanning entire planning regions mean that surrogate data, such as satellite imagery, are frequently used to develop spatial classifications. However, due to a lack of appropriate biological data, these classifications often rely on abiotic variables, which act as surrogates for biodiversity. The aim of this study was to produce a fine-scale bioregional classification, using multivariate clustering, for the inshore and offshore marine environment off the east coast of South Africa, adjacent to the province of KwaZulu-Natal and out to the boundary of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 200 nautical miles offshore. We used remotely sensed data of sea surface temperature, chlorophyll a and turbidity, together with interpolated bathymetry and continental-slope data, as well as additional inshore data on sediments, seabed oxygen and bottom temperature. A multivariate k-means analysis was used to produce a fine-scale marine bioregionalisation, with three bioregions subdivided into 12 biozones. The offshore classification was primarily a pelagic bioregionalisation, whereas the inshore classification (on the continental shelf) was a coupled benthopelagic bioregionalisation, owing to the availability of benthic data for this area. The resulting classification was used as a base layer for a systematic conservation plan developed for the province, and provided the methods for subsequent planning conducted for the entire South African EEZ. Validation of the classification is currently being conducted in marine research programmes that are sampling benthic biota and habitats in a sampling design stratified according to the biozones delineated in this study.     

Submarine cables: a challenge for ocean management

The international submarine cable industry is a major component of the global telecommunications system, providing important services and requiring increased levels of protection for the maintenance of global economic and maritime security, broadly defined. An overview is given of the submarine cable industry, including its technological developments, legal aspects, security considerations, and implications for integrated ocean planning and management. In the context of multiple ocean use, submarine cables can cause spatial conflicts with other ocean users, particularly the fishing industry. Issues to be examined include compensation for lost or damaged gear, legal liability for cable damage, and regulation and licensing of cables on the seabed of the continental shelf and the high seas. Recent industry-to-industry agreements and programs for compensation to fishers in the USA and Canada are significant advancements in the implementation of integrated approaches to ocean management and planning. The development of transparent and stable interdepartmental processes for the coordinated planning, management and regulation of submarine cables is required for national EEZs. The regulation of international cable industry practices must be harmonized with national management approaches.     

基于多维度声学特征优选的多波束海底底质分类

海底表层底质分布信息的准确获取在构建海洋基础地理数据库中发挥着重要作用。目前,多波束是实现大范围海底底质分类的有效手段之一,基于多波束测深和反向散射强度数据所派生的声学特征被广泛应用于底质分类建模。然而,随着特征维度的增加,特征空间中存在的无关和冗余特征严重影响底质分类精度。为了定量评估声学特征对底质类别的表征能力,并消除无效特征对分类结果的干扰,本文提出了基于多维度声学特征优选的海底底质分类方法。首先,结合实际底质样本的物理属性对多维特征进行排序和优选,排除冗余和无关特征。其次,分别应用支持向量机、随机森林和深度信念网络构建海底底质监督分类模型。通过利用爱尔兰海南部多波束调查数据和实地取样信息进行试验,结果表明提出方法对海底底质的总体分类精度和Kappa系数分别最高达到了86.20%和0.834,相较于主成分分析和熵指标特征选择方法有明显提高,突出了该方法在海底底质探测及制图的应用潜力。     

Conserving the common heritage of humankind – Options for the deep-seabed mining regime

The seabed in areas beyond national jurisdiction is the common heritage of mankind (CHM), as declared in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The CHM principle requires not only the sharing of benefits (the subject of a parallel article by the authors) but also the conservation and preservation of natural and biological resources for both present and future generations. The International Seabed Authority, tasked with operationalising the CHM principle in the context of deep-seabed mining, has not yet defined which measures it will take to give effect to environmental aspects of the CHM principle. This article seeks to contribute to the discussion about the operationalization of the CHM principle by specifically examining the environmental dimension of the CHM principle. To this end, the article interprets the CHM principle in the context of sustainable development and discusses a number of potential options the Authority could consider to support the application of the CHM principle. These include: funding scientific research to increase knowledge about the deep ocean for humankind; ensuring public participation in the decision-making process; debating the need for and alternatives to deep-seabed mining; determining conservation targets and levels of harm deemed acceptable; limiting environmental impacts; preserving mineable sites for future generations; compensating humankind for environmental harm; and ensuring enforcement.     

济州岛南部海域海底声呐图像分析与声学底质分类

东海北部外陆架靠近济州岛南部海域,是黄海槽向冲绳海槽延伸的部分,属于黑潮分支黄海暖流的通道入口,分布着脊槽相间的海底底形,对其海底声呐图像的处理分析及声学底质分类的分析研究,有助于了解该通道海底底形表层纹理特征及沉积物分布规律。基于在济州岛南部海域获取的多波束声呐数据,应用图像处理技术和方法,对数据进行了处理,获得了海底声呐影像图,并对其表层纹理特征进行了描述和分析;同时,基于多波束反向散射强度数据,结合19组海底地质取样数据,建立研究区海底反向散射强度与沉积物粒度特征之间的统计关系模型,并以改进的学习向量量化神经网络方法,实现对海底粉砂质砂、黏土质砂以及砂-粉砂-黏土3种底质类型的快速自动分类识别。     

海底声学底质分类的ELM-AdaBoost方法

基于自适应增强算法（AdaBoost）结合极限学习机（ELM）,通过迭代、调整、优化ELM分类器之间的权值,从而构建了具有强鲁棒性、高精度的ELM-AdaBoost强分类器,增强了现有的ELM分类器的稳定性。以珠江口海区侧扫声呐图像为实验数据,对礁石、砂、泥3类典型底质进行分类识别,该方法的平均分类精度超过90%,优于单一ELM分类器的平均分类精度85.95%,也优于LVQ、BP等传统分类器,且在分类所耗时间上也远少于传统分类器。实验结果表明,本文构建的ELM-AdaBoost方法可有效应用于海底声学底质分类,可满足实时底质分类的需求。     

Recent advances in offshore geotechnics for deep water oil and gas developments

The paper presents an overview of recent developments in geotechnical analysis and design associated with oil and gas developments in deep water. Typically the seabed in deep water comprises soft, lightly overconsolidated, fine grained sediments, which must support a variety of infrastructure placed on the seabed or anchored to it. A particular challenge is often the mobility of the infrastructure either during installation or during operation, and the consequent disturbance and healing of the seabed soil, leading to changes in seabed topography and strength. Novel aspects of geotechnical engineering for offshore facilities in these conditions are reviewed, including: new equipment and techniques to characterise the seabed; yield function approaches to evaluate the capacity of shallow skirted foundations; novel anchoring systems for moored floating facilities; pipeline and steel catenary riser interaction with the seabed; and submarine slides and their impact on infrastructure. Example results from sophisticated physical and numerical modelling are presented.     

Model-based covariance mean variance classification techniques:algorithm development and application to the acoustic classification ofzooplankton

For inversion problems in which the theoretical relationship between observed data and model parameters is well characterized, a promising approach to the classification problem is the application of techniques that capitalize on the predictive power of class-specific models. Theoretical models have been developed for three zooplankton scattering classes (hard elastic-shelled, e.g., pteropods; fluid-like, e.g., euphausiids; and gas-bearing, e.g., siphonophores), providing a sound basis for model-based classification approaches. The covariance mean variance classification (CMVC) techniques classify broad-band echoes from individual zooplankton based on comparisons of observed echo spectra to model space realizations. Three different CMVC algorithms were developed: the integrated score classifier, the pairwise score classifier, and the Bayesian probability classifier; these classifiers assign observations to a class based on similarities in covariance, mean, and variance while accounting for model spare ambiguity and validity. The CMVC techniques were applied to broad-band (~350-750 kHz) echoes acquired from 24 different zooplankton to invert for scatterer class and properties. All three classification algorithms had a high rate of success with high-quality high SNR data. Accurate acoustic classification of zooplankton species has the potential to significantly improve estimates of zooplankton biomass made from ocean acoustic backscatter measurements     

海底声学底质分类技术的研究现状与前景

对海底声学底质分类技术的研究现状进行了分析。介绍了目前典型的底质分类设备、软件以及可采取的分类方法,探讨了我国开展海底声学底质分类技术研究、开发的可行性与具体实现的思路。     

基于粒子群优化算法的PSO-BP海底声学底质分类方法

利用粒子群优化算法（PSO）较强的鲁棒性和全局搜索能力等优点,将PSO算法与BP神经网络相结合,优化了BP神经网络分类时的初始权值和阈值。基于珠江河口三角洲的侧扫声呐图像数据,提取了海底声呐图像中砂、礁石、泥3类典型底质的6种主要特征向量,利用PSO-BP方法对海底底质进行分类识别。实验表明,3类底质分类精度均大于90%,高于BP神经网络70%左右的分类精度,表明PSO-BP方法可有效应用于海底底质的分类识别。     

强化开发保护洋底矿产资源

陆上资源逐渐匮乏,海洋中蕴含丰富的资源,而且储量巨大,开发海洋资源已是大势所趋。我国虽然海底资源丰富,但海底资源开发和海洋权益工作还未到位,海底资源开发进展相对缓慢,邻国在争议海域开采油气资源,而日、韩等国均已提出自己的划分大陆架的方案,我国的大陆架资源安全受到威胁。因此,必须清醒地认识到海底资源的巨大经济和战略价值潜力,在积极研究海底资源的探测和开发利用的基础上,保护我国的海底资源,加强海洋权益的维护。     

The global importance and context of methane escape from the seabed

Seabed fluid flow includes volcanic and hydrothermal fluid emissions from ocean spreading centres, island arcs, and intra-plate volcanism, and groundwater flows in some coastal areas. Of direct concern to this paper is the escape of methane from the seabed. Escaping methane may be of microbial, thermogenic or abiogenic origin. Escapes occur in all seas and oceans, in coastal waters, on continental shelves, slopes and rises, the deep oceans, and deep ocean trenches. These represent a variety of geological contexts on passive continental margins, at convergent plate margins (accretionary wedges) and transform plate boundaries. Seepage is clearly widespread, and it contributes methane to the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere, thus making up an important part of the global carbon cycle.     

Sharing benefits of the common heritage of mankind – Is the deep seabed mining regime ready?

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea declares the seabed beyond national jurisdiction and its mineral resources as the “common heritage of mankind” (CHM). This article examines the operationalisation of the CHM principle in the international seabed mining regime, with focus placed on the sharing of benefits derived from mining. The article begins by providing an overview of the CHM principle, before examining four modalities provided for in the Convention, both institutional and substantial, and their role in giving effect to the CHM principle: (1) financial benefits; (2) the “Enterprise”; (3) the parallel system of reserved areas; and, (4) marine scientific research. Finally, overarching issues are discussed and some suggestions on ways forward are presented. The article considers that the deep seabed mining regime is not yet ready to effectively share the benefits derived from the common heritage of mankind. In particular, the future of the Enterprise is uncertain and changes to the so-called parallel system that affect the CHM have received minimal discussion. Moreover, a lack of publicly available research data related to seabed mining is hindering current benefits for humankind. However, work is underway at the International Seabed Authority to establish rules and policies with respect to the sharing of financial benefits. While the CHM principle remains largely untested, approaches that are transparent, inclusive, accountable, and equitable are more likely to be successful.     

河口定义及分类研究的进展

本文对近 40a来不同领域的河口定义及分类进行了总结。从地貌、自然地理、地质、生物等方面分析了研究人员较普遍接受的几种河口定义及分类的优劣 ,探讨了河口定义及分类的发展动态。     

25th anniversary of the deep manned submersibles Mir-1 and Mir-2

In 1987, the deep manned submersibles Mir-1 and Mir-2 were introduced into the practice of scientific research of the ocean. For 25 years, with their help, a wide range of deepwater operations have been carried out: oceanic scientific research (including the most active areas on the seabed??hydrothermal fields), shooting films and documentaries, which have brought international fame to the vehicles; special operations concerning solving problems of national importance concerning the sunken nuclear submarines Komsomolets and Kursk; live television broadcast from great depths of the ocean via satellite to the earth; diving under the ice at the geographic North Pole; a three-year cycle of scientific research on lake Baikal; etc. During the 25 years of their operation, there have been no unsolvable problems in the deep ocean for the Mir vehicles. They have rightfully taken a leading position in the field of deep-sea research in the world and were named the best vehicles in technical terms in the history of the creation of such technical facilities. Some of the results and details of the above-mentioned deep-sea operations, as well as the technical innovations developed and implemented during the service of the Mir vehicles, are considered in this article.     

一种基于众数赋值的高光谱图像地物分类方法

提出了一种融合监督分类与非监督分类结果的高光谱遥感影像分类新方法——众数赋值分类法。采用ISODATA非监督分类方法对高光谱遥感影像进行分类,并对非监督分类结果的图斑进行标记,同时用最大似然法(ML)和支持向量机(SVM)法进行监督分类,然后以监督分类结果对非监督分类后各斑块进行类别赋值。方法是:统计每个非监督分类斑块中由监督分类所获得的各类别像元数及所占比例,将非监督分类斑块的类别赋予所占比例最高的监督分类结果的类别,最终获得高光谱图像分类结果。研究表明:(1)非监督分类类别数量大于10时,其与ML分类结果融合的总体分类精度和Kappa系数均较监督分类法的分类结果好;(2)ML和20个类别的ISODATA分类结果融合的总体精度最高,为87.35%,比单独ML的总体精度高约2个百分点;(3)SVM和10个类别的ISODATA分类结果融合的总体精度提高最大,较SVM的总体精度提高近3个百分点;(4)随着非监督分类类别数量的增多,分类结果的总体精度呈现由低到高再到低的变化过程。     

深度学习在海洋信息探测中的应用:现状与展望

深度学习可以通过深度神经网络,使机器理解学习数据,从而提高数据分类效果和预测结果的准确性,因此在海洋信息探测中应用越来越受到重视.作者基于深度学习的基本原理,阐述了海洋上常用的深度学习神经网络模型,并结合海洋信息探测要素,对温度、盐度、风场、有效波高和海冰等进行了海洋环境信息因子的预测分析;同时,对船舶、溢油和涡旋等进...     

Wave dispersion equation in a porous seabed

The wave dispersion equation has played a very important role in the development of ocean surface wave theories. The evaluation of the length of a water wave is an essential example of solving the dispersion relation. Conventional ocean wave theories have been based on an assumption of a rigid impermeable seabed. Thus, the conventional wave dispersion equation can only be used in the case of a wave propagating over a rigid impermeable seabed. For waves propagating over a porous seabed (such as a sandy bed), the conventional dispersion relation is no longer valid because of the absence of the characteristics of the porous seabed. The objective of this study is to establish a new wave dispersion equation for waves propagating over a porous seabed. Based on the new relation, the effects of a porous seabed on wave characteristics (such as the wavelength and wave profile) are discussed in detail.