Tangled lines in New Zealand's quota management system: The process of including recreational fisheries

This article uses New Zealand as a case study of processes relating to the inclusion of recreational fisheries in modern fisheries management systems based on Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). The New Zealand case highlights challenges governments often meet when attempting to integrate the recreational sector into fisheries management, including: (a) resistance to restrictions on what has historically been free-of-charge public access to fish for recreational purposes and (b) the fragmented character of the recreational sector, which makes it difficult to have recreational interests attend to their management role and responsibilities.     

Alternatives to ITQs in equity–efficiency–effectiveness trade-offs: How the lay-up system spread effort in the BC halibut fishery

Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs), also called “catch shares”, have been broadly adopted in the last two decades, at the same time that concerns about their equity and effectiveness in delivering the predicted outcomes have increased. This paper documents how an alternative fishermen-designed and operated system of spreading fishing effort to avoid the race for fish—called the lay-up system—worked effectively and equitably for four decades in the British Columbia halibut fishery before ITQs were introduced in this fishery. Why the lay-up system was allowed to collapse and its history ignored illustrates important roles played by conflicting ideologies, bureaucratic rationality, and the inability to imagine an alternative way of solving fisheries management problems. Trade-offs between the efficiency, equity, and effectiveness of halibut and other management systems are considered.     

Fishers’ opinions on marketization of property rights and the quota system in France

After many years of Common Fisheries Policies in the European Union, 88% of stocks are still being fished beyond their Maximum Sustainable Yield. While several Member States and the European Commission are moving toward Individual Transferable Quotas as a solution, France has declared its opposition to such marketization of fishing access rights and a national law has classified fisheries resources as a collective heritage. This paper discusses the evolution of the French system, principally its distribution of access rights by the Producer Organizations instead of the market. However, the Producer Organizations, which are more linked to the industrial fleet organizations, have not always modified their sharing formulae to include small-scale fisheries, resulting in a demand for more transparency and equity.     

Recent developments in Korean fisheries management

Korean fisheries face stock depletion and enforcement problems even after various fisheries management tools have been used for 50 years to manage the fisheries. Because of these problems, self-control management has been introduced into Korean fisheries led by the central government since 2001.This paper analyzes the characteristics of 79 model communities (2002) which have introduced Self-control Management Project (SMP) as their fisheries management system. Based on the characteristics of 79 model communities, we categorize Korean SMPs into 3 types: fishing village community model (I), fishing gear community (aquaculture (II-1) and coastal and offshore fishery (II-2)) and large-scale community (III). This paper also provides alternative policies to alleviate problems in different types of communities and to expand and more firmly establish the SMP in Korean fisheries.     

Individual transferable quotas in Argentina: Policy and performance

The purpose of the article is to describe the Argentine ITQ system during the early years after the initial allocation in 2009 and introduce the Argentine case in the discussion on ITQs. This paper has been elaborated based on statistical information derived from fleet and catch data of the Fishing Log System of the Undersecretariat of Fisheries and Acquaculture and Management Reports on the Individual Transferable Quotas regime. The implementation of the Argentine ITQs regime took into account issues learned from other countries and from the theoretical debate about the pros and cons of the ITQ system. The Argentine ITQ regime introduced enough flexibility to dismiss the disadvantages of this system pointed out in other international experiences.     

Sociocultural institutions in Norwegian fisheries management

Many policymakers attribute the success of fisheries management regimes to the design and implementation of particular regulatory tools. While sound design and effective implementation are crucial elements of any successful regulatory action, fisheries policymakers and regulators should also account for the heterogeneous sociocultural institutions of partner communities. The success of fisheries policies relies on compliance and, ideally, cooperation (accepting policies, i.e. not protesting or otherwise strongly agitating against the system) from fisheries stakeholders. Even a policy that is sound in design and flawless in execution is at risk of failure if target stakeholders obstruct or otherwise undermine the system. This paper investigates how institutions, at various levels of scale and formality, play a role in determining the degree of compliance and/or cooperation that a fisheries management regime enjoys. In particular, it will examine the issue of Individual Vessel Quotas (IVQs) in Norway, and the response of fishing communities to the trade liberalization of IVQs.     

Excess capacity and efficiency in the quota managed Tasmanian Rock Lobster Fishery

Excess capacity is a major concern for fisheries management worldwide. It is often argued that Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) systems will enhance efficiency and alleviate problems of excess capacity. While improvements in efficiency have been observed, most empirical studies have found only modest changes in excess capacity as a result of such systems. Using a database of compulsory log-book information for the Tasmanian Rock Lobster Fishery in Australia, from January 2000 to December 2013, this study presents the first analysis to investigate the dynamic behaviour of both excess capacity and efficiency (i.e. technical and scale efficiency) in an industrialised fleet after the introduction of quota management. The analysis revealed weak evidence for a prolonged adjustment in the fishery following the introduction of an ITQ system. In addition, no marked changes in excess capacity were observed over the study period; and furthermore, there was no evidence for an increase in excess capacity during a period of non-binding Total Allowable Catch (TAC) when race to fish behaviour increased in the fishery. The results suggest a limited ability of the ITQ system to alleviate levels of excess capacity in fisheries in the long-term.     

Are input controls required in individual transferable quota fisheries to address ecosystem based fisheries management objectives?

This study examined the use of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) to effectively manage fishing impacts on all ecosystem components, as required under Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) principles. A consequence of changing from input controls to output-based (catch) management is that the control of the regulating authority tends to be reduced, which may affect the outcomes for ecosystem management. This study reviewed the use of input controls across six fishing methods in 18 ITQ fisheries, which have been independently accredited as ecologically sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council (12 fisheries) or under Australian environmental legislation for Wildlife Trade Operation (six fisheries). Input controls were retained across a range of ITQ fisheries, with non-selective fisheries such as trawl, gillnet and line employing more input controls than selective fisheries such as purse-seine, pot/trap and dredge. Further case-studies confirmed the widespread and recent use of input controls (spatial and temporal closures) with the aim of managing ecosystem impacts of fishing. The retention of input controls, particularly closures affects the security (quality of title) characteristic of the fishing use right and the theoretical ability of fishers to manage their right for their future benefit. The security characteristic is weakened by closures through loss of access, which undermines industry trust and incentive for long-term decision making. By reducing the security of ITQs, individual fisher incentives and behaviour may separate from societal objectives for sustainability, which was one of the foremost reasons for introducing ITQ management.     

New regulations in Chilean Fisheries and Aquaculture: ITQ’s and Territorial Users Rights

The large industrial fishery development that turn Chile into the third fishing nation in the world is described, and recent regulatory innovations introduced by new Fishery and Aquaculture legislation are reviewed. In addition to classical Fishery management tools, different types of limited entry systems are now defined in the law and applicable to Chilean fisherie. These for the first time include allocation of resources in the form of Individual Fishing Quotas and Individual Transferable Quotas (IFQs and ITQs). Territorial User’s Rights in Fisheries (TURF’s) were incorporated in the law to enhance self-regulatory practices among artisanal fishermen. Among them, the Areas for Management and Exploitation for Benthic Resources (AME) represent an associative assignment of TURFs. Large-scale zoning is used to re-define Aquaculture Grants and to ritualise the conflicts between Artisanal and Industrial fishermen by establishing the Artisanal Reserve in which small-scale coastal fishermen have Priority Access. Performance of the new management instruments are documented with case studies, for the following fisheries: the loco (Concholepas concholepas) a carnivorous snail, keyhole limpets (Fissurella spp.), langostino or squat lobster (Cervimunida johni), Black hake (Dissostichus eleginoides) and the Yellow prawn (Pleuroncodes monodon).     

Lease quota fishing in a changing rock lobster industry

The Tasmanian rock lobster industry has been managed by Individually Transferable Quotas (ITQs) and several input control measures since 1998. In this study, nine years of rock lobster fishing business data were used to categorise the catch and quota ownership traits and examine the response to the introduction of ITQ management. More specifically the study investigates how profit drivers moderated industry structure change.     

Development in fleet fishing capacity in rights based fisheries

Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) fisheries management systems are supposed to remedy the over-capacity problem associated with traditional command-and-control management systems. This paper provides some insight with respect to the impact of ITQs on vessel numbers in six different countries. The results indicate that the number of vessels was reduced by at least 30% within a few years of the implementation of individual vessel quotas. Thereafter a slow reduction in vessel numbers continued, indicating that it may take time period before over-capacity is fully removed. Moreover, the total effect on vessel numbers is surprisingly similar across countries and fisheries despite different degrees of transferability in the different cases analysed.     

Conflict over flying fish: The dispute between Trinidad & Tobago and Barbados

This paper explains the ongoing conflict between Trinidad & Tobago and Barbados over the right to catch flying fish off the coast of Tobago. The aim of the paper is to present the different scenarios arising from the conflict and to determine the best outcome for managing the flying fish. The history and current situation of the conflict is presented. The possible outcomes are evaluated with a framework developed in the paper. It is concluded that a negotiated agreement between the two countries gives the best result. Future negotiations should focus on developing a limited access program like Individual Transferable Quotas.     

Thirty years after privatization: A survey of Icelandic small-boat fishermen

Iceland's nationwide privatized Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) system is over thirty years old but remains a topic of public and political debate, particularly because of the continued effects on small-scale fisheries. A national survey of small-boat fishermen was distributed to: (1) identify major defining characteristics of participants in ITQ and non-ITQ fisheries, (2) document and examine differences in satisfaction with fisheries management, and (3) evaluate the existing options for newcomers to participate in small-boat fisheries. Survey results indicate that Icelandic small-boat fishermen are engaged in multiple management systems within a wide range of boat sizes. Those who held quota were more satisfied with the current ITQ system compared to those who did not hold quota; however, nearly all fishermen were still critical of fisheries management in Iceland and the two major non-ITQ options of lumpfish and coastal fishing were not perceived to offer significant opportunity for entry-level fishermen. Dissatisfaction stemmed from the lack of decision-making power, a distrust of scientific advice, and the perception that the ITQ system did not serve the purpose of protecting fisheries resources, but was rather oriented only toward economic goals. The dynamic nature of Icelandic small-boat fishing livelihoods and the pervasive negative attitudes thirty years after ITQ implementation demonstrate the need for culturally appropriate and equitable fisheries management schemes where success is measured in social as well as economic and biological terms.     

Private rights,public benefits: Industry-driven seabed protection

New Zealand has a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ) that contains a variety of marine habitats and commercially-important species. The commercial fishing industry operating within New Zealand's EEZ is of significant value to the economy and fisheries resources are managed through the extensive use of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). One of the benefits of ITQs has been to better align some of the private incentives of quota owners with the public interest. These incentives contributed to an initiative proposed by the fishing industry to close large areas of New Zealand's EEZ to protect the seabed from trawling. These closed areas are termed benthic protection areas (BPAs) and protect the benthic biodiversity of about 1.1 million square kilometres of seabed—approximately 30% of New Zealand's EEZ. A significant proportion of New Zealand's known seamounts and active hydrothermal vents are protected by these closed areas. We describe and discuss the criteria used to select BPAs and some of the criticism of this marine protection initiative. We argue that the assignment of strong property rights in fishing resources was an important precondition to an industry initiative that has a significant public benefit. Where private and public interests are well aligned, government can adopt an enabling and facilitation role, ceding direct control of processes in order to get the results the align with the public interest.     

Sustainable use of flatfish resources: Addressing the credibility crisis in mixed fisheries management

Many flatfish species are caught in mixed demersal trawl fisheries and managed by Total Allowable Catch (TAC). Despite decades of fisheries management, several major stocks are severely depleted. Using the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) as an example, the failure of mixed-fisheries management is analysed by focussing on: the management system; the role of science; the role of managers and politicians; the response of fisheries to management. Failure of the CFP management could be ascribed to: incorrect management advice owing to bias in stock assessments; the tendency of politicians to set the TAC well above the recommended level; and non-compliance of the fisheries with the management regulations. We conclude that TAC management, although apparently successful in some single-species fisheries, inevitably leads to unsustainable exploitation of stocks caught in mixed demersal fisheries as it promotes discarding of over-quota catch and misreporting of catches, thereby corrupting the basis of the scientific advice and increasing the risk of stock collapse. This failure in mixed demersal fisheries has resulted in the loss of credibility of both scientists and managers, and has undermined the support of fishermen for management regulations. An approach is developed to convert the TAC system into a system that controls the total allowable effort (TAE). The approach takes account of the differences in catch efficiency between fleets as well as seasonal changes in the distribution of the target species and can also be applied in the recovery plans for rebuilding specific components of the demersal fish community, such as plaice, cod and hake.     

Climatic regime shifts and their impacts on marine ecosystem and fisheries resources in Korean waters

There were climatic regime shifts over the North Pacific in 1976 and 1988 which affected the dynamics of the marine ecosystem and fisheries resources in Korean waters. Precipitation in Korean waters showed a decadal scale climatic jump, especially of Ullungdo Island, reflecting the regime shift that occurred in the North Pacific. The variation was also detected in East Asian atmospheric systems. The Aleutian Low and North Pacific High Pressure Systems showed substantial changes in 1976 and around 1987–89. 1976 was an unusually warm year for Korea; mean sea surface temperature (SST) was higher than ‘normal’ and was accompanied by a northward shift in the thermal front. Post 1976, the volume transport of the Kuroshio Current increased and higher seawater and air temperatures persisted until 1988. Other shifts occurred after 1976 such as an increase in mixed layer depth (MLD) and biological changes in the ecosystem of Korean waters including decreases in spring primary production and an increase in autumn primary production. Primary production increased again after 1988, and was followed by a significant increase in zooplankton biomass after 1991. The 1976 regime shift was manifested by a decreased biomass and production of saury, but an increase in biomass and production of sardine and filefish in Korean waters. After 1988, recruitment, biomass, and production of sardine collapsed while those of mackerel substantially increased. Based on these observations, hypotheses on the relationship between the climate-driven oceanic changes and changes in fisheries resources were developed and are discussed.     

From regulated access to transferable harvesting rights: Policy insights from New Zealand

The dramatic decline in yields from many of the world's fisheries has prompted an assessment of traditional regulatory approaches to management. Transferable harvesting rights provide an alternative institutional structure in fisheries management. This paper has two aims. First, it links outcomes in the fishery with institutional structure. Second, the paper identifies several important institutional variables if a transition is to be made to from command-and-control management to tradeable rights. In particular, the transition phase must deal with the expectations that attach to the status quo structure of rights in the fishery. The paper's empirical content is drawn from New Zealand's experience with the introduction of transferable harvesting rights.     

The evolution of collaborative management in the Northeast USA tilefish fishery

This paper explores the evolution of collaborative management in the Northeast, US Tilefish fishery. Through proactive participation in the fisheries management process along with their own internal agreements, the Montauk Tilefish Association members have stopped racing to fish and have become resource managers themselves. This paper explores how social networks and trust has helped this group create a management regime that reduces the race to fish, improves safety at sea and provides a more stable and fresh supply of fish to the market. It also examines the role of the council process and policies in the evolution of this collaborative management regime.     

The Common Fisheries Policy: An enforcement problem

Marine populations in Europe are in decline due to the unsuccessful results of the Common Fisheries Policy. By combining data of scientific recommendations from ICES, TACs approved and reported landings with an age-structured model, the objectives of this paper are to investigate the level of compliance of the TAC regulation, and the level of enforcement and its economic impact on fishery resources. The results presented here suggest that while there does not exist a regular pattern between TAC proposal and TAC approved, there is a clear pattern between TAC approved and reported landings. As a consequence, there is a regular lack of enforcement at national fisheries authority level. The paper also presents results of the recovery plans for the Southern hake and the Atlantic cod fisheries as case studies to illustrate the level of enforcement based on collusion between national fisheries advisers and industry. The results from both cases studies analyzed here indicate that drastic solutions could generate positive results for the recovery of the stocks, but perhaps they are not always the best measure in fisheries management due to the high economic losses for fishermen and social effects on coastal communities in the short and medium term. Finally, this work demonstrates that if the recovery plans had been implemented, the net present profits for both fisheries would have increased over time.     

Fragmentation in high seas fisheries: Preliminary reflections on a global oceans governance approach

Notwithstanding the wide range of actions taken to strengthen the legal regime of international fisheries, overexploitation and the risk of depletion of stocks have been strong concerns for decades. Indeed, the regime of international fisheries law is currently not rooted in sustainability, and it does not adequately take into consideration the impact of fishing activities on the wider marine environment. One of the main causes lies in fragmentation of international fisheries law: a lack of coordination between instruments and institutions, and gaps in effective coherent structures for fisheries management. Areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), including the high seas, are particularly prone to this lack of coordination and integration.One alternative to reach a durable management of high seas fisheries might be found in a ‘global oceans governance approach’. This paper explores how this approach could impact the fragmented regime of fisheries. It suggests that governance-based perspectives underline concepts rooted in adaptability and interactions, concepts that suggest to approach international fisheries law not as a static set of rules but as an evolutive process. Reflecting on an overarching goal of coordination and possible management challenges in ABNJ provides an interesting starting point to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of oceans governance on the fragmented legal regime of high seas fisheries. We now need to see how to give effect to governance, a task that remains, at this point, a work in progress.