青藏高原东缘地壳、上地幔电性结构探测及其构造意义

利用大地电磁测深(简称MT)方法对青藏高原东缘地区进行了地壳、上地幔电性结构探测研究,得到了该区具有特殊的电性结构特征,探测结果清晰揭示出:(i)鲜水河断裂带是一条规模巨大的岩石圈断裂,它是川滇菱形块体的重要边界断裂;(ii)测区为强震多发区,断裂两侧块体介质的差异是强震活动带重要的深部背景;(iii)川滇菱形块体北部地区十几公里下,发现存在大规模低阻体,电阻率仅为几～几十欧姆·米,该层约以45°角向北东下延,与青藏高原侧向挤出,物质向东流变,受刚性块体阻挡有关。从深部介质电性特征,推断现今川滇菱形块体北部处在热状态,是近代很活动的块体之一;(iV)测区内岩石圈厚度由西段(川滇北部块体)逐渐向东(扬子块体)增厚。     

川滇地区活动地块现今地壳形变特征

利用川滇地区1998～2002年间200多GPS点位的多期复测结果, 将川滇地区分为9个次级活动块体, 计算了各个活动块体的欧拉旋转矢量和主要活动断裂的运动速度, 并分析了该地区的应变场特征. 结果表明, 川滇地区的地壳运动速度具有北强南弱、西强东弱、以菱形块体为主顺时针旋转的特征; 菱形块体外各个块体运动速度大幅衰减; 与地质结果的差异表明, 川滇菱形块体的现今地壳运动由北往南逐渐增强; 青藏高原物质的侧东向挤出在滇中块体南部明显下降, 而丽江—小金河断裂带的吸收作用并不明显; 川滇地区以压应变为主,四川石棉和云南新平一带出现的应变集中地区也许具有发生中强地震的可能性.     

川滇藏交界地区M≥7地震记载的起始年代与资料完整性分析

地震资料是地震活动性分析、地震危险性分析及地震预测等研究的基础数据。川滇藏交界地区是中国地震活动强烈的地区之一,分析该地区地震资料的完整性有助于进行相关断层的危险性评价及区域地震活动趋势分析。文中通过查阅川滇藏交界地区44个县的地方志,了解各县的建制沿革,由川滇进藏通道的演化明确了川滇藏交界地区的关键交通枢纽与节点,结合历史地震目录、地震史料及前人对该地区地震资料完整性的研究成果,综合分析了鲜水河地区与三江并流区7级以上强震不会被漏记的可靠年代及6级以上地震应被记载的起始年代。同时,根据历史地震等烈度线长、短轴数据拟合得到的川滇菱形块体烈度衰减关系,在空间上分析6、 7级地震的影响范围。结果表明,1719—1736年为鲜水河地区M_S≥7地震资料完整的起始年代,1719—1728年为三江并流区M_S≥7地震资料完整的可能起始年代,上述年代同样可以作为2个地区6级以上地震应记载的起始年代。     

川滇菱形块体东边界断裂带内库仑应力演化及危险性

采用分层黏弹模型,考虑了川滇菱形块体东边界1480年以来34个强震和大地震的同震位错和震后黏滞松弛效应,以及各断层段的震间长期构造加载作用,计算了川滇菱形块体东边界18个断层段的断层面上的库仑应力变化随时间的演化。系统地研究了川滇菱形块体东边界鲜水河、安宁河、则木河、小江断裂带间的相互作用,分析断裂带各断层段之间、各断裂带之间先发生的地震对后发生地震的促进或延迟作用,进一步基于断层面上的库仑应力变化计算结果分析各断层段的强震危险性。应力触发的计算结果显示,各断裂带各断层段上先发生的强震可能触发后发生的强震,相邻断裂带上发生的强震之间也可能存在触发作用。各断层段上累积库仑应力变化随时间演化的计算结果显示,鲜水河断裂带的中段及南部磨西段、安宁河断裂带冕宁—西昌段、小江断裂带北部巧家—东川段和南部建水段的库仑应力增加显著,强震危险性值得关注。     

青藏东南缘背景噪声的瑞利波相速度层析成像及强震活动

为研究青藏东南缘的速度结构及其与地震的关系,本研究使用云南区域地震台网的55个宽频带地震台站连续地震背景噪声数据,采用双台站互相关方法获得瑞利面波经验格林函数,提取相速度频散曲线,根据面波层析成像反演得到云南地区周期5~34 s范围内相速度分布图像.反演结果揭示研究区地壳及上地幔速度结构存在明显横向不均匀性.短周期(5~12 s)相速度异常与研究区内沉积层厚度、结晶基底埋深等区域地质构造有密切的关系;16~26 s周期内由红河断裂、小江断裂和剑川断裂围成的"川滇菱形块体"内呈现大范围的低速异常,至30~34 s时"川滇菱形块体"下方又变为高速异常,纵观整个范围川滇菱形块体内相速度的变化情况,暗示中下地壳处的低速异常区很可能就是青藏高原下地壳流的通道.1970年以来的地震活动显示,云南区域强震活动空间分布不均匀,具有比较显著的块体活动特点,但大多数集中在上地壳,除滇中块体外,地震主要发生在高低速分界面和低速异常区,震级一般不超过7级.在深度15~30 km范围内,5级以上强震的数量很少,但7级以上地震却集中在这个深度范围,主要发生在高低速分界面并更深入到相对高速的异常体内.     

川滇菱形块体地震活动性：强震活动的格局和基本特点

川滇菱形块体处于两大板块俯冲、顶撞前缘易于聚集构造应力的特殊位置,是一个强烈的地震活动区。其强震活动与围限块体的边缘断裂密切相关。块体内部的某些强震也主要沿着分隔次一级断块的断裂构造展布。边缘断裂强震活动各有所异。总体上说,东界活动强于西界,一般先于西界进入集中活动期,其持续时间也比西界长。对块体的强震活动起着控制作用。不同的集中活动时期,强震的主要活动位置相对稳定。鲜水河断裂带、东南“菱角”及西界菱角地区可以列为第一强烈活动区,是块体强震活动格局的基本骨架。     

川滇地区较长时间尺度的地震活动盛衰交替性

通过与更早地震资料的对比, 研究了鲜水河断裂带, 川滇地壳块体东带、 西带, 松潘、 龙门山断裂带以及整个川滇地区较长时间尺度的地震活动盛衰交替性。 结果表明, 川滇东带北段(鲜水河断裂带)、 松潘、 龙门山地震带及川滇西带中段和南段(主要是红河断裂带)的地震活动具有明显的几十到百年尺度的盛衰交替性。 而川滇东带中南段(安宁河-则木河-小江断裂带)与川滇西带北段(金沙江断裂带)在上述地震带的平静期里, 中强以上地震频次明显减少, 但有个别7级以上强震发生。 这样, 整个川滇地区地震活动的盛衰交替性呈现一种比较复杂的阶段性特征: 伴随频繁中强震的强震活跃期与突发强震活动期交替出现。 值得注意的是, 川滇地区从19世纪末开始的伴随频繁中强震的强震活跃期已超过百年, 目前出现长期平静, 应注意进入突发强震活动期的可能性。 根据川滇地区上一个突发强震活动期突发强震的空间分布, 推测未来的突发强震可能发生在南北向断裂带, 或其他方向断裂带与南北向断裂带的交汇部。 文中还对上述统计现象的机理作了简要讨论。     

川滇地区Lg波Q值层析成像

利用云南和四川数字地震观测台网记录的数字化地震资料,开展了川滇地区不同频率的Q_Lg层析成像研究,反演结果的空间分辨率小于100 km.反演结果表明,川滇地区介质的横向不均匀性强烈,Q_Lg高低值差异显著.川滇地区显著的高衰减区有川滇菱形块体的东南边界（即沿鲜水河至安宁河以及思茅—澜沧—普洱区）,滇西北地区、龙门山断裂以西松潘—茂文地区、巴塘及理塘强震区等,Lg波高衰减区的分布与构造活动强烈、强震活动或大震破裂造成介质破碎区、低速区等相关,表明构造活动强烈或大震破裂造成的介质破碎、热物质沿活动断裂上涌等可能是川滇地区低Q_Lg的主要成因.显著的低衰减区有川东盆地、滇东南地区以及金沙江、怒江断裂的中段区域,滇中块体内部也呈现出相对的低衰减特征.Lg波低衰减区与地震活动性弱、速度正异常等相关,表明川滇地区Lg波的低衰减区与地壳变形、地震活动性及水热活动弱、块体稳定等有关.     

川滇地区地震活动演化特征分析

结合川滇菱形块体的活动特征，应用图型动力学的损伤演化诱致突变分析方法，研究了川滇地区两条地震带中强地震的损伤演化过程，并给出各地震带演化到破坏态的所有可能的各单元初始状态的组合形式图。研究结果对指导该区地震预测实践有一定的积极作用。     

川滇地区强震序列库仑破裂应力加卸载效应的数值模似

通过建立较精细的川滇地区三维有限元模型,数值模拟了川滇地区主要活动断裂的强震活动对于其他活动断裂潜在强震孕育进程的库仑破裂应力加卸载效应.模拟结果显示在川滇地区主要活动断裂带的几何学展布形态和运动学性质的构造背景之上,川滇地区强震活动相互影响的主要特征是活动断裂面库仑破裂应力变化大多处于增大状态.其中,金沙江断裂带、小江断裂带、楚雄—建水断裂带、鲜水河断裂带和安宁河断裂带上的强震所产生的加载作用比较强,而丽江—小金河断裂带和腾冲—澜沧断裂带则较弱.1981～2000年川滇地区M≥6.5地震序列的模拟结果显示,后续地震全部位于已发生地震所引起的库仑破裂应力增大区之内.数值模拟结果显示,在川滇地区,一个强震发生之后,发震断层本身强烈卸载的同时,库仑破裂应力的加载效应在其他主要活动断裂带潜在强震孕育进程中占据了主导地位,强震活动之间相互作用的主要效应是应力加载,已发生的强震加速了下一个强震的孕育进程,进而导致一系列地震的发生,直至整个区域所积累的应变能处于较低水平之后,区域地震活动进入一个新的平静期.     

SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences SUBJECT INDEX TO VOLUME 57(2014)

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Distribution of throughfall and stemflow in multi‐strata agroforestry,perennial monoculture,fallow and primary forest in central Amazonia,Brazil

The partitioning of rain water into throughfall, stemflow and interception loss when passing through plant canopies depends on properties of the respective plant species, such as leaf area and branch angles. In heterogeneous vegetation, such as tropical forest or polycultural systems, the presence of different plant species may consequently result in a mosaic of situations with respect to quantity and quality of water inputs into the soil. As these processes influence not only the water availability for the plants, but also water infiltration and nutrient leaching, the understanding of plant effects on the repartitioning of rain water may help in the optimization of land use systems and management practices. We measured throughfall and stemflow in a perennial polyculture (multi‐strata agroforestry), monocultures of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) for fruit and for palmito, a monoculture of cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum), spontaneous fallow and primary forest during one year in central Amazonia, Brazil. The effect on rain water partitioning was measured separately for four useful tree species in the polyculture and for two tree species in the primary forest. Throughfall at two stem distances, and stemflow, differed significantly between tree species, resulting in pronounced spatial patterns of water input into the soil in the polyculture system. For two tree species, peach palm for fruit (Bactris gasipaes) and Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa), the water input into the soil near the stem was significantly higher than the open‐area rainfall. This could lead to increased nutrient leaching when fertilizer is applied close to the stem of these trees. In the primary forest, such spatial patterns could also be detected, with significantly higher water input near a palm (Oenocarpus bacaba) than near a dicotyledonous tree species (Eschweilera sp.). Interception losses were 6·4% in the polyculture, 13·9 and 12·3% in the peach palm monocultures for fruit and for palmito, respectively, 0·5% in the cupuaçu monoculture and 3·1% in the fallow. With more than 20% of the open‐area rainfall, the highest stemflow contributions to the water input into the soil were measured in the palm monocultures and in the fallow. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Monte Carlo study of rainfall forecasting with a stochastic model

A procedure for short-term rainfall forecasting in real-time is developed and a study of the role of sampling on forecast ability is conducted. Ground level rainfall fields are forecasted using a stochastic space-time rainfall model in state-space form. Updating of the rainfall field in real-time is accomplished using a distributed parameter Kalman filter to optimally combine measurement information and forecast model estimates. The influence of sampling density on forecast accuracy is evaluated using a series of a simulated rainfall events generated with the same stochastic rainfall model. Sampling was conducted at five different network spatial densities. The results quantify the influence of sampling network density on real-time rainfall field forecasting. Statistical analyses of the rainfall field residuals illustrate improvement in one hour lead time forecasts at higher measurement densities.     

Anthropogenic Eutrophication and Red Tide Outbreak in Lacustrine Systems of the Kashmir Himalaya

Red tide, a recurrent phenomenon has become conspicuous in several Kashmir lake ecosystems since 1991. The responsible organism (Euglena pedunculata), a rare flagellate rediscovered in the Kashmir Himalaya (Khan 1993) caused first and unprecedented red tide outbreak, constituting a maximum of 96% of resident numerical phytoplankton density in Dal Lake. At present, conflicting hypotheses exist on the generation of causal assemblage(s) imparting redness to waters: Jeeji Bai (1991) linked its origin to acid precipitation – a fallout of burning oil‐fields during the Gulf War – whilst Khan (1993) holds local factor(s) responsible. Field/experimental studies support the latter contention that the influx of untreated sewage, in unison with warm temperatures, high levels of PhAR, iron and interruption to hydrological flow‐pattern together with absence/or reduction in grazing activity created conducive environmental milieu for red tide outbreak. Dal Lake “red tide” drifted the bloom‐inoculum to other waters, including Lake Wular, where additional ecological niches were carved out, threatening the aesthetic value and biological diversity of Kashmir lakes. Ecological monitoring indicates frequent seasonal red tide occurrence in Dal Lake (including summer‐autumn event of 1998) which testifies its unabated eutrophication status. Further studies are needed on ecological adaptability and biogeographic distribution of this rare and unique red tide‐causing flagellate.