Seasonal and spatial distribution of particulate organic matter (POM) in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas

As part of the Western Arctic Shelf–Basin Interactions (SBI) project, the production and fate of organic carbon and nitrogen from the Chukchi and Beaufort Sea shelves were investigated during spring (5 May–15 June) and summer (15 July–25 August) cruises in 2002. Seasonal observations of suspended particulate organic carbon (POC) and nitrogen (PON) and large-particle (>53 μm) size class suggest that there was a large accumulation of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) between spring and summer in the surface mixed layer due to high phytoplankton productivity. Considerable organic matter appeared to be transported from the shelf into the Arctic Ocean basin in an elevated POC and PON layer at the top of the upper halocline. Seasonal changes in the molar carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the suspended particulate organic matter (POM) pool reflect a change in the quality of the organic material that was present and presumably being exported to the sediment and to Arctic Ocean waters adjacent to the Chukchi and Beaufort Sea shelves. In spring, low particulate C:N ratios (<6; i.e., N rich) were observed in nitrate-replete surface waters. By the summer, localized high particulate C:N ratios (>9; i.e., N-poor) were observed in nitrate-depleted surface waters. Low POC and inorganic nutrient concentrations observed in the surface layer suggest that rates of primary, new and export production are low in the Canada Basin region of the Arctic Ocean.     

Net community production in the northeastern Chukchi Sea

To assess the magnitude, distribution and fate of net community production (NCP) in the Chukchi Sea, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), and particulate organic carbon (POC) and particulate organic nitrogen (PON) were measured during the spring and summer of 2004 and compared to similar observations taken in 2002. Distinctive differences in hydrographic conditions were observed between these two years, allowing us to consider several factors that could impact NCP and carbon cycling in both the Chukchi Shelf and the adjacent Canada Basin. Between the spring and summer cruises high rates of phytoplankton production over the Chukchi shelf resulted in a significant drawdown of DIC in the mixed layer and the associated production of DOC/N and POC/N. As in 2002, the highest rates of NCP occurred over the northeastern part of the Chukchi shelf near the head of Barrow Canyon, which has historically been a hotspot for biological activity in the region. However, in 2004, rates of NCP over most of the northeastern shelf were similar and in some cases higher than rates observed in 2002. This was unexpected due to a greater influence of low-nutrient waters from the Alaskan Coastal Current in 2004, which should have suppressed rates of NCP compared to 2002. Between spring and summer of 2004, normalized concentrations of DIC in the mixed layer decreased by as much as 280 μmol kg⁻¹, while DOC and DON increased by ∼16 and 9 μmol kg⁻¹, respectively. Given the decreased availability of inorganic nutrients in 2004, rates of NCP could be attributed to increased light penetration, which may have allowed phytoplankton to increase utilization of nutrients deeper in the water column. In addition, there was a rapid and extensive retreat of the ice cover in summer 2004 with warmer temperatures in the mixed layer that could have enhanced NCP. Estimates of NCP near the head of Barrow Canyon in 2004 were ∼1500 mg carbon (C) m⁻² d⁻¹ which was ∼400 mg C m⁻² d⁻¹ higher than the same location in 2002. Estimates of NCP over the shelf-break and deep Canada Basin were low in both years, confirming that there is little primary production in the interior of the western Arctic Ocean due to near-zero concentrations of inorganic nitrate in the mixed layer.     

Evaluation of shelf–basin interaction in the western Arctic by use of short-lived radium isotopes: The importance of mesoscale processes

Shelf–basin exchange in the western Arctic was evaluated by use of water-column analyses of ²²⁸Ra/²²⁶Ra ratios and the first measurements of the short-lived ²²⁴Ra (T_1/2=3.64 d) in the Arctic. During the 2002 shelf–basin interaction (SBI) program, excess ²²⁴Ra was detected over the shelf but was not found seaward of the shelf-break. Similarly, the ²²⁸Ra/²²⁶Ra ratio dropped rapidly from the shelf across the shelf-break. Consequently, the model age gradient (elapsed time since shelf residence) northward across the Chukchi Shelf increased from 1–5 years nearshore to approximately 14 years in surface waters sampled off shelf at the southern margin of the Beaufort Gyre. This steep gradient is consistent with very slow exchange between the Chukchi Shelf and the Beaufort Gyre, whereby Bering Strait inflow is constrained by the Earth's rotation to follow local isobaths and does not easily move into deeper water. The strong dynamic control inhibiting water that enters the system through Bering Strait from flowing north across isobaths also would lead to a long recirculation time of river water emptied into the Beaufort Gyre. Possible mechanisms that can generate cross-shelf currents that break the topographic constraint to follow isobaths, and thereby transport water (and associated properties) off the shelves include wind-induced upwelling/downwelling, meandering jets, and eddies. Evidence of such a process was found during the ICEX project in the Beaufort Sea in April 2003 when excess ²²⁴Ra was measured over 200 km from any shelf source. This required an NE offshore flow of 40 cm s⁻¹ assuming that the source water derives from the mouth of Barrow Canyon. A weak northeastward flow was measured using an LADCP within the upper 300 m of the ocean, but was of lower speed than required by the ²²⁴Ra_xs at the time of the ICEX occupation.     

Transport of plankton and particles between the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during summer 2002, described using a Video Plankton Recorder

A key goal of the Western Arctic Shelf Basin Interactions program is to understand how physical and biological processes together impact shelf–basin exchange of biological, chemical, and physical properties. High-resolution vertical distributions of plankton and particles were obtained using an Auto Video Plankton Recorder from 29 locations on the Chukchi Shelf, in the deep Beaufort Sea, and across the Beaufort–Chukchi Shelf-break during a cruise on the USCGC Healy in July–August, 2002. Coincident velocity estimates were collected using hull-mounted acoustic Doppler current profilers. Images of plankton and particles were extracted automatically and identified manually to taxa and type. Copepods, diatom chains, decaying diatoms, marine snow, and radiolarians were the most abundant categories observed. Distinct regional differences in abundance were observed that were associated with different oceanographic regimes and with the prevailing circulation in the region. Vertical distributions were closely associated with the physical structure of the water column. A sharp horizontal discontinuity in abundance of all categories between shelf and basin was observed, located over the shelf break and potentially established and maintained by transport of plankton and particles along-shelf to the east rather than northwards towards the basin. Barrow Canyon and the shelf and shelf-break east of Barrow Canyon had very high concentrations of plankton and particles, especially marine snow, that may have resulted from elevated production on the eastern Chukchi Shelf that subsequently was advected out of Barrow Canyon and to the east. Comparisons of downward flux, estimated from particle sinking rates based on individual marine snow particle size, and horizontal velocities suggested that much of the marine snow carbon was sinking to the benthos of the Chukchi Sea prior to being advected off-shelf. Velocities and plankton concentrations together indicated that little off-shelf flux of plankton or particles to the basin was occurring except in an eddy located off of the Beaufort Shelf.     

Sediment transport by sea ice in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas: Increasing importance due to changing ice conditions?

Sediment-laden sea ice is widespread over the shallow, wide Siberian Arctic shelves, with off-shelf export from the Laptev and East Siberian Seas contributing substantially to the Arctic Ocean's sediment budget. By contrast, the North American shelves, owing to their narrow width and greater water depths, have not been deemed as important for basin-wide sediment transport by sea ice. Observations over the Chukchi and Beaufort shelves in 2001/02 revealed the widespread occurrence of sediment-laden ice over an area of more than 100,000 km² between 68 and 74°N and 155 and 170°W. Ice stratigraphic studies indicate that sediment inclusions were associated with entrainment of frazil ice into deformed, multiple layers of rafted nilas, indicative of a flaw-lead environment adjacent to the landfast ice of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. This is corroborated by buoy trajectories and satellite imagery indicating entrainment in a coastal polynya in the eastern Chukchi Sea in February of 2002 as well as formation of sediment-laden ice along the Beaufort Sea coast as far eastward as the Mackenzie shelf. Moored upward-looking sonar on the Mackenzie shelf provides further insight into the ice growth and deformation regime governing sediment entrainment. Analysis of Radarsat Synthetic Aperture (SAR) imagery in conjunction with bathymetric data help constrain the water depth of sediment resuspension and subsequent ice entrainment (>20 m for the Chukchi Sea). Sediment loads averaged at 128 t km^–2, with sediment occurring in layers of roughly 0.5 m thickness, mostly in the lower ice layers. The total amount of sediment transported by sea ice (mostly out of the narrow zone between the landfast ice edge and waters too deep for resuspension and entrainment) is at minimum 4×10⁶ t in the sampling area and is estimated at 5–8×10⁶ t over the entire Chukchi and Beaufort shelves in 2001/02, representing a significant term in the sediment budget of the western Arctic Ocean. Recent changes in the Chukchi and Beaufort Sea ice regimes (reduced summer minimum ice extent, ice thinning, reduction in multi-year ice extent, altered drift paths and mid-winter landfast ice break-out events) have likely resulted in an increase of sediment-laden ice in the area. Apart from contributing substantially to along- and across-shelf particulate flow, an increase in the amount of dirty ice significantly impacts (sub-)ice algal production and may enhance the dispersal of pollutants.     

Spatial patterns of primary production on the shelf, slope and basin of the Western Arctic in 2002

In the spring and summer of 2002 primary production in the Chukchi Sea was measured, using ¹⁴C uptake experiments. Our cruise track encompassed the shelf and continental slope area of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas progressing into deep water over the Canada Basin. The study area experienced upwards of 90% ice cover during the spring, with ice retreating into the basin during the summer. Production in the spring was light-limited due to ice cover, with average euphotic zone production rates of <0.3 g C m⁻² d⁻¹. Values of 8 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ were observed in association with surface bloom conditions during the initial ice breakup. Considerable nutrient reduction in the surface waters took place between the spring and summer cruise, and although not observed, this was attributed to a spring bloom. Decreased ice cover and increased clarity of surface waters in the summer allowed greater light penetration. The highest rates of production during the second cruise were found at 25–30 m, coincident with the top of the nutricline. Daily euphotic zone productivity in the summer averaged 0.78 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ on the shelf and 0.32 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ on the edge of the Canada basin. These data provide an estimated annual production of 90 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in the study area.     

Phytoplankton of the western Arctic in the spring and summer of 2002: Structure and seasonal changes

We analyzed the taxonomic structure and spatial variability of phytoplankton abundance and biomass in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during spring and summer seasons of the SBI program. Phytoplankton samples were collected during two surveys from May 10 to June 13 and from July 19 to August 21 of 2002. In May and June, ice cover exceeded 80% over most of the study area and there was no vertical stratification, indicating that the successional state of the phytoplankton corresponded to the end of the winter biological season. The phytoplankton abundance ranged from a few tens to a few thousands of cells per liter, while biomass varied from 0.1 to 3.0 mg C m⁻³. Small areas of high phytoplankton abundance (0.13–1.3×10⁶ cells L⁻¹) and biomass (22–536 mg C m⁻³), dominated by early spring diatoms Pauliella taeniata and Fragilariopsis oceanica in the surface waters, which indicated the beginning of the spring bloom, were observed only in the southeastern part of the Chukchi shelf and off Point Barrow. In July and August summer period, more than a half of the study area had <50% ice cover and the water column was stratified by temperature and salinity. Over the Chukchi shelf and continental slope of the Beaufort Sea, the phytoplankton abundance and biomass were an order of magnitude higher in July–August than in May–June. The taxonomic diversity of algae also increased due to the appearance of late-spring and summer diatoms, dinoflagellates, and coccolithophorids (Emiliania huxleyi). Interestingly, the seasonal differences between phytoplankton abundance and taxonomic composition in the spring and summer periods varied the least over the Chukchi Sea slope and in the deep-water area of the Arctic Ocean. High algae concentrations in summer were located in the lower layers of the euphotic zone, suggesting that the spring bloom on both the Chukchi shelf and in the western part of the Beaufort Sea occurred in late June/early July. In the spring and summer, the microalgal community was characterized by a high abundance of 4–10 μm flagellates, which exceeded the abundance of all other taxonomic groups. In both seasons studied, phytoplankton reached its maximum abundance within restricted areas in the southern part of the Chukchi Sea southwest of Point Hope, in the northern part of the Chukchi shelf between the 50- and 100-m isobaths, on the shelf northwest of Point Barrow, and over the continental slope in the Beaufort Sea. The pronounced spatial difference in the seasonal state was a characteristic feature of the phytoplankton community in the western Arctic.     

Multi-decadal synthesis of benthic–pelagic coupling in the western arctic: Role of cross-shelf advective processes

Using geographic information systems (GIS) software and geostatistical techniques, we utilized three decades of water-column chlorophyll a data to examine the relative importance of autochthonous versus allochthonous sources of reduced carbon to benthic communities that occur from the northern Bering to the eastern Beaufort Sea shelf. Spatial trend analyses revealed areas of high benthic biomass (>300 g m⁻²) and chlorophyll (>150 mg m⁻²) on both the southern and northern Chukchi shelf; both areas are known as depositional centers for reduced organic matter that originates on the Bering Sea shelf and is advected northward in Anadyr and Bering shelf water masses. We found a significant correlation between biomass and chlorophyll a in the Chukchi Sea, reflective of the strong benthic–pelagic coupling in a system that is utilized heavily by benthic-feeding marine mammals. In contrast, there was no significant correlation between biomass and chlorophyll in the Beaufort Sea, which by comparison, is considerably less productive (biomass and chlorophyll, <75 g m⁻² and <50 mg m⁻², respectively). One notable exception is an area of relatively high biomass (50–100 g m⁻²) and chlorophyll (80 mg m⁻²) near Barter Island in the eastern Beaufort Sea. Compared to other adjacent areas in the Beaufort Sea, the chlorophyll values in the vicinity of Barter Island were considerably higher and likely reflect a long-hypothesized upwelling in that area and close coupling between the benthos and autochthonous production. In the Bering Sea, a drop in benthic biomass in 1994 compared with previous measurements (1974–1993) may support earlier observations that document a decline in biomass that began between the 1980s and 1990s in the Chirikov Basin and south of St. Lawrence Island. The results of this study indicate that the benthos is an excellent long-term indicator of both local and physical advective processes. In addition, this work provides further evidence that secondary production on arctic shelves can be significantly augmented by reduced carbon advected from highly productive adjacent shelves.     

Detection of rapid deposition of sea ice-rafted material to the Arctic Ocean benthos using the cosmogenic tracer Be

During three icebreaker cruises in the Arctic Ocean under different sea-ice conditions in 2002, undisturbed benthic surface sediments were collected and assayed for the presence of a short-lived (t_1/2=53 d), particle-reactive cosmogenic radionuclide, ⁷Be, that is solely derived from atmospheric deposition. Under largely ice-covered conditions in May–June 2002, we did not detect this radionuclide in benthic surface sediments, despite significant inventories present in ice-rafted snow on the overlying sea ice (mean=86.8 Bq m⁻²±32.0 SD; n=9). During the July–August 2002 Shelf–Basin Interactions (SBI) cruise aboard the USCGC Healy and during a simultaneous cruise of the CCGS Sir Wilfrid Laurier on the Bering and Chukchi Shelf, which occupied the same general region following retreat and dissolution of Arctic ice cover, the ⁷Be present in this snow as well as surface deposition on to the sea ice-free water surface was detected in many benthic surface sediments, including some as deep as 945 m in Barrow Canyon. Inventories of ⁷Be in sediments were as high (60 Bq m⁻²) as the entire decay-corrected inventory present earlier in some snow samples collected on the sea-ice cover. Other deposition indicators such as the inventories of sediment chlorophyll, sediment oxygen respiration rates and ²³⁴Th-derived export fluxes also showed post-ice melt particle deposition and vertical transport, but in most cases the ⁷Be deposition was not tightly correlated with these other indicators, suggesting that ⁷Be sedimentation may not be controlled by the same processes. Our observations indicate that materials in sea ice, including contaminants, particulate organic, and mineral matter originating from atmospheric deposition or entrained in continental shelf sediments and rafted onto sea ice, can be rapidly transported to depth. The re-distribution of these materials as sea-ice drifts and eventually melts has the potential for impacting Arctic Ocean biogeochemical cycles and contaminant concentrations in areas of the Arctic remote from the original point of deposition.     

西北冰洋表层沉积物中生源和陆源粗组分及其沉积环境

通过中国第1至第3次北极科学考察在北冰洋西部所采集的99个表层沉积物中生源与陆源粗组分的分析,研究了该海域表层生产力的变化,有机质来源以及陆源粗颗粒物质的输入方式和影响因素.研究区域生源组分所反映的表层生产力变化与通过白令海峡进入楚科奇海的3股太平洋洋流密切相关.楚科奇海西侧高盐高营养盐的阿纳德尔流流经区域,表层生产力...     

北冰洋西部沉积物黏土的Sm-Nd同位素特征及物源指示意义

通过对北冰洋西部(楚科奇海及北部边缘地带、加拿大海盆)34个表层沉积物样品中黏土组分的Sm-Nd同位素分析,结果表明:(1)黏土组分的Sm-Nd同位素分异明显,可将沉积物划分为北部、西部、南部和东部等多个同位素物源区;(2)在楚科奇海,太平洋入流的向北输运自西向东形成了3个不同的同位素物源区,沉积物的c(147Sm)/c(144Nd)比值、ε_Nd(0)值和T_DM年龄自西向东呈递减趋势;(3)在研究区北部,顺时针方向流动的波弗特涡流将马更些河物质向西搬运至加拿大海盆和楚科奇高地,使该区沉积物ε_Nd(0)值明显偏低,T_DM偏大;(4)在楚科奇海北部外陆架、海台和陆坡区,太平洋水、大西洋水和波弗特涡流的相互作用使该区沉积物T_DM年龄的标准偏差大,同时出现了南-北源和西-南源等同位素混合类型。     

Flow of winter-transformed Pacific water into the Western Arctic

The dynamics of the flow of dense water through Barrow Canyon is investigated using data from a hydrographic survey in summer 2002. The focus is on the winter-transformed Bering water—the highest volumetric mode of winter water in the Chukchi Sea—which drains northward through the canyon in spring and summer. The transport of this water mass during the time of the survey was 0.2–0.3 Sv. As the layer flowed from the head of the canyon to the mouth, it sank, decelerated, and stretched. Strong cyclonic relative vorticity was generated on the seaward side of the jet, which compensated for the stretching. This adjustment was incomplete, however, in that it did not extend across the entire current, possibly because of internal mixing due to shear instabilities. The resulting vorticity structure of the flow at the canyon mouth was conducive for baroclinic instability and eddy formation. Multiple eddies of winter-transformed Bering water were observed along the Chukchi–Beaufort shelfbreak. Those to the west of Barrow Canyon were in the process of being spawned by the eastward-flowing shelfbreak current emanating from Herald Canyon, while the single eddy observed to the east originated from the Barrow Canyon outflow. It is argued that such an eddy formation is a major source of the ubiquitous cold-core anti-cyclones observed historically throughout the Canada Basin. Implications for the ventilation of the upper halocline of the Western Arctic are discussed.     

Ocean circulation and exchanges through the northern Bering Sea—1979–2001 model results

We have developed and run a model with sufficiently high resolution (9 km and 45 levels) and a large enough spatial domain to allow for realistic representation of flow through the narrow and shallow straits in the northern Bering Sea. This is potentially important for quantification of long-term mean and time-dependent ocean circulation, and water mass and property exchanges between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Over a 23 year interval (1979–2001), mean transport through Bering Strait is estimated to be 0.65 Sv. Comparison of our model results with published observations indicates that ocean circulation is not only variable at seasonal to interdecadal scales but it is also responsive to short-term atmospheric forcing. One of such events occurred during the winter of 2000–2001 with reversed oceanic flow in some areas and much reduced sea-ice cover. Analyses of eddy kinetic energy fields identify some high biological productivity regions of the Chirikov Basin coincident with persistent high energy (up to 2700 cm² s⁻² in the surface layer and up to 2600 cm² s⁻² at mid-depth) throughout the annual cycle. Model output in the Bering Strait region is validated against several time series of moored observations of water mass properties. Comparison with shipboard observations of near-bottom salinity from late winter through autumn indicates that the model reasonably represents the major water-mass properties in the region. The modeled vertical water-column structure in the northern Bering Sea allows increased understanding of the mechanisms of water transformation and transport northward through Bering Strait into the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. We conclude that the long-term model results for the northern Bering Sea provide important insights into the ocean circulation and fluxes and they are a useful frame of reference for limited observations that are short-term and/or cover only a small geographic region.     

Paleoceanographic records in the Chukchi Basin, western Arctic Ocean during the late Quaternary

The late Quaternary paleoceanographic changes in the western Arctic Ocean are revealed by quantitative studies of foraminiferal abundance, ice-rafted detritus (IRD) and its mineralogical and petrological compositions, planktonic Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sin.) (Nps)-δ¹⁸O and -δ¹³C, biogenic and non-biogenic components in Core M03 token from the Chukchi Basin during the Second Chinese National Arctic Expedition cruise. Seven IRD events appeared at MIS 7, 5, 3 and 1. These IRD were carried in massive icebergs, which were exported to the Beaufort Sea through the M'Clure Strait Ice Stream, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and then transported into the Chukchi Basin by the Beaufort Gyre. Low IRD deposition occurred during the glacial times when more extended ice cover and weakened Beaufort Gyre, while the open water condition and the intensified Beaufort Gyre during interglacial periods favored the IRD deposition. Therefore, the IRD events not only indicate the provenance of coarser detritus and ice export events, but also reflect the evolutionary histories of the Beaufort Gyre and North American ice sheet. Seven light Nps-δ¹⁸O and -δ¹³C excursions could respond to enhanced rates of sea ice formation resulting in the production and sinking of isotopically light brines, but was irrelevant to the warm Atlantic water and freshwater inputs. Whereas, the heavy Nps-δ¹⁸O and -δ¹³C values separately reflect the lessened Arctic freshwater and Pacific water, and well-ventilated surface water from the continental shelf and halocline water. Variations of CaCO₃ content and planktonic foraminiferal abundance during the interglacial and glacial periods can demonstrate the incremental or diminishing input of the Atlantic water, while the total organic carbon (TOC) and opal contents increased and decreased during the glacial and interglacial periods, respectively, which could be related to the TOC degradation, opal dissolution and redox conditions of interface between the bottom water and sediments.     

Circulation on the north central Chukchi Sea shelf

Mooring and shipboard data collected between 1992 and 1995 delineate the circulation over the north central Chukchi shelf. Previous studies indicated that Pacific waters crossed the Chukchi shelf through Herald Valley (in the west) and Barrow Canyon (in the east). We find a third branch (through the Central Channel) onto the outer shelf. The Central Channel transport varies seasonally in phase with Bering Strait transport, and is 0.2 Sv on average, although some of this might include water entrained from the outflow through Herald Valley. A portion of the Central Channel outflow moves eastward and converges with the Alaskan Coastal Current at the head of Barrow Canyon. The remainder appears to continue northeastward over the central outer shelf toward the shelfbreak, joined by outflow from Herald Valley. The mean flow opposes the prevailing winds and is primarily forced by the sea-level slope between the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Current variations are mainly wind forced, but baroclinic forcing, associated with upstream dense-water formation in coastal polynyas might occasionally be important.Winter water-mass modification depends crucially on the fall and winter winds, which control seasonal ice development. An extensive fall ice cover delays cooling, limits new ice formation, and results in little salinization. In such years, Bering shelf waters cross the Chukchi shelf with little modification. In contrast, extensive open water in fall leads to early and rapid cooling, and if accompanied by vigorous ice production within coastal polynyas, results in the production of high-salinity (>33) shelf waters. Such interannual variability likely affects slope processes and the transport of Pacific waters into the Arctic Ocean interior.     

白令海和西北冰洋表层沉积物磁化率特征初步研究

为了准确解释环境磁学参数记录的极地古气候环境变化信息,本研究对白令海和西北冰洋61个站位的表层沉积物进行了高、低频质量磁化率(χ)、非磁滞磁化率(χARM)和磁化率-温度(k-T)分析,以探明该区沉积物中磁性矿物的种类、来源与搬运路径。结果显示,样品的χ具有明显的地域分布特征。白令海的χ值整体高于楚科奇海,并在育空河口外侧和圣劳伦斯岛南侧较高,向北和向西南方向逐渐减小。楚科奇海中东部陆架上表层沉积χ值高于阿拉斯加沿岸,而西北冰洋深海平原和洋脊区的χ值最低。χARM的变化趋势与质量磁化率相似,但频率磁化率的变化趋势与质量磁化率正好相反。k-T分析结果显示阿留申海盆沉积物中的铁磁性矿物以磁赤铁矿占主导,白令海陆架育空河口外侧和圣劳伦斯岛南北两侧为磁铁矿,白令海陆架西部和楚科奇海陆架中东部为磁赤铁矿和磁铁矿,楚科奇海阿拉斯加沿岸为黄铁矿,而西北冰洋陆坡、深海平原和洋脊区为胶黄铁矿和黄铁矿,但高纬度区沉积物中的胶黄铁矿含量更高。沉积物中磁性矿物的区域性分布受沉积物来源、洋流和底质环境等因素的控制。白令海和楚科奇海陆架磁赤铁矿来源于亚洲大陆,白令海陆架东部的磁铁矿来自育空河流域,阿拉斯加沿岸沉积物中的黄铁矿,应为阿拉斯加西北部陆源侵蚀来源的或早期成岩作用形成的,西北冰洋深海盆区的胶黄铁矿,为自生成因的。     

A year in the physical oceanography of the Chukchi Sea: Moored measurements from autumn 1990–1991

Year-long time-series of temperature, salinity and velocity from 12 locations throughout the Chukchi Sea from September 1990 to October 1991 document physical transformations and significant seasonal changes in the throughflow from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean for one year. In most of the Chukchi, the flow field responds rapidly to the local wind, with high spatial coherence over the basin scale—effectively the ocean takes on the lengthscales of the wind forcing. Although weekly transport variability is very large (ca. -2 to ), the mean flow is northwards, opposed by the mean wind (which is southward), but presumably forced by a sea-level slope between the Pacific and the Arctic, which these data suggest may have significant variability on long (order a year) timescales. The high flow variability yields a significant range of residence times for waters in the Chukchi (i.e. one to six months for half the transit) with the larger values applicable in winter.Temperature and salinity (TS) records show a strong annual cycle of freezing, salinization, freshening and warming, with sizable interannual variability. The largest seasonal variability is seen in the east, where warm, fresh waters escape from the buoyant, coastally trapped Alaskan Coastal Current into the interior Chukchi. In the west, the seasonally present Siberian Coastal Current provides a source of cold, fresh waters and a flow field less linked to the local wind. Cold, dense polynya waters are observed near Cape Lisburne and occasional upwelling events bring lower Arctic Ocean halocline waters to the head of Barrow Canyon. For about half the year, at least at depth, the entire Chukchi is condensed into a small region of TS-space at the freezing temperature, suggesting ventilation occurs to near-bottom, driven by cooling and brine rejection in autumn/winter and by storm-mixing all year.In 1990–1991, the ca. 0.8 Sv annual mean inflow through Bering Strait exits the Chukchi in four outflows—via Long Strait, Herald Valley, the Central Channel, and Barrow Canyon—each outflow being comparable (order 0.1–0.3 Sv) and showing significant changes in volume and water properties (and hence equilibrium depth in the Arctic Ocean) throughout the year. The clearest seasonal cycle in properties and flow is in Herald Valley, where the outflow is only weakly related to the local wind. In this one year, the outflows ventilate above and below (but not in) the Arctic halocline mode of 33.1 psu. A volumetric comparison with Bering Strait indicates significant cooling during transit through the Chukchi, but remarkably little change in salinity, at least in the denser waters. This suggests that, with the exception of (in this year small) polynya events, the salinity cycle in the Chukchi can be considered as being set by the input through Bering Strait and thus, since density is dominated by salinity at these temperatures, Bering Strait salinities are a reasonable predictor of ventilation of the Arctic Ocean.     

Seasonal and regional patterns in egg production of Calanus glacialis/marshallae in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during spring and summer, 2002

Understanding the physical and biogeochemical processes that control the exchange of biogenic carbon within and between the arctic shelves, slopes, and deep basins is a key objective of the Western Arctic Shelf-Basin Interaction program (SBI). Here, egg production (EP) of the dominant copepod Calanus glacialis/marshallae was used as an indicator of food limitation for the mesozooplankton community in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas in spring and summer, 2002. Both C. glacialis and C. marshallae may occur in this region but the two cannot easily be differentiated visually. Four oceanographic regions were objectively identified that roughly corresponded to the different pathways in circulation of nutrient-rich Pacific water. A ‘transition’ region characterized by ‘older’ Pacific water was located at the shelfbreak and separated the nutrient-rich shelf water and the low-nutrient waters of the deep basin. The observed spatial pattern in EP in C. glacialis/marshallae in spring and summer resulted both from the different water mass environments and from the reproductive cycle of the species. EP was greater on the shelf than in the basin, corresponding to differences in body size and nitrogen condition factor (NCF) in females, while the egg viability was generally high throughout the study area. EP showed no relationship with low-chlorophyll a biomass under heavy ice-cover in spring, while a significant relationship was observed in the more open water in summer. Adult female carbon condition factor (CCF) was much higher in summer, reflecting the accumulation of lipids during the growth season. Small animals with a markedly greater NCF dominated on the shelf. The shelfbreak region contained a mixture of females from the shelf and the basin with intermediate sizes, conditions, and EP rates. The occurrence of water typical of the ‘transition’ shelfbreak region and elevated EP in C. glacialis/marshallae offshore on the Barrow Canyon and East Barrow sections indicated offshore transport of productive shelf water and the associated plankton community. The input of nutrient-rich Pacific water and accompanying elevated production to the northern Chukchi Sea and the Chukchi-Beaufort shelfbreak region may contribute to the reproductive success of C. glacialis/marshallae in this region.     

Uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide in Arctic shelf seas: evaluation of the relative importance of processes that influence pCO2 in water transported over the Bering–Chukchi Sea shelf

The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the water transported over the Bering–Chukchi shelves has been assessed from the change in carbon-related chemical constituents. The calculated uptake of atmospheric CO₂ from the time that the water enters the Bering Sea shelf until it reaches the northern Chukchi Sea shelf slope (1 year) was estimated to be 86±22 g C m⁻² in the upper 100 m. Combining the average uptake per m³ with a volume flow of 0.83×10⁶ m³ s⁻¹ through the Bering Strait yields a flux of 22×10¹² g C year⁻¹. We have also estimated the relative contribution from cooling, biology, freshening, CaCO₃ dissolution, and denitrification for the modification of the seawater pCO₂ over the shelf. The latter three had negligible impact on pCO₂ compared to biology and cooling. Biology was found to be almost twice as important as cooling for lowering the pCO₂ in the water on the Bering–Chukchi shelves. Those results were compared with earlier surveys made in the Barents Sea, where the uptake of atmospheric CO₂ was about half that estimated in the Bering–Chukchi Seas. Cooling and biology were of nearly equal significance in the Barents Sea in driving the flux of CO₂ into the ocean. The differences between the two regions are discussed. The loss of inorganic carbon due to primary production was estimated from the change in phosphate concentration in the water column. A larger loss of nitrate relative to phosphate compared to the classical ΔN/ΔP ratio of 16 was found. This excess loss was about 30% of the initial nitrate concentration and could possibly be explained by denitrification in the sediment of the Bering and Chukchi Seas.     

Upwelling in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea: Atmospheric forcing and local versus non-local response

The spin up and relaxation of an autumn upwelling event on the Beaufort slope is investigated using a combination of oceanic and atmospheric data and numerical models. The event occurred in November 2002 and was driven by an Aleutian low storm. The wind field was strongly influenced by the pack-ice distribution, resulting in enhanced winds over the open water of the Chukchi Sea. Flow distortion due to the Brooks mountain range was also evident. Mooring observations east of Barrow Canyon show that the Beaufort shelfbreak jet reversed to the west under strong easterly winds, followed by upwelling of Atlantic Water onto the shelf. After the winds subsided a deep eastward jet of Atlantic Water developed, centered at 250 m depth. An idealized numerical model reproduces these results and suggests that the oceanic response to the local winds is modulated by a propagating signal from the western edge of the storm. The disparity in wave speeds between the sea surface height signal—traveling at the fast barotropic shelf wave speed—versus the interior density signal—traveling at the slow baroclinic wave speed—leads to the deep eastward jet. The broad-scale response to the storm over the Chukchi Sea is investigated using a regional numerical model. The strong gradient in windspeed at the ice edge results in convergence of the offshore Ekman transport, leading to the establishment of an anti-cyclonic gyre in the northern Chukchi Sea. Accordingly, the Chukchi shelfbreak jet accelerates to the east into the wind during the storm, and no upwelling occurs west of Barrow Canyon. Hence the storm response is fundamentally different on the Beaufort slope (upwelling) versus the Chukchi slope (no upwelling). The regional numerical model results are supported by additional mooring data in the Chukchi Sea.