Coastal and marine resource management in the Galapagos Islands and the Archipelago of San Andres: Issues,problems and opportunities

Tourism and fisheries comprise the economic backbone of the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador and the Archipelago of San Andres, Colombia. The health of fishery resources, the environment and their dependant industries is discussed against a background of policy development and user conflicts, supported by a range of technical studies undertaken between 1998 and 2002, setting the scene for an examination of a more participatory and effective role for local stakeholders in the management of their island resources. Local stakeholders have been involved in guiding plans on future management of both islands’ resources including Biosphere Reserve designation of the San Andres Archipelago and the development of a Special Law for Galapagos. Their participation is deemed essential to progress in marine resource management and zoning initiatives within the islands.     

The role of marine spatial planning in sea use management: The Belgian case

The expansion of offshore activities and the increasing need to meet international and national commitments to biodiversity conservation have led to an enhanced interest in marine spatial planning (MSP) as a tool for sea use management. Several European countries, on their own initiative or driven by European legislation and policy, have taken global leadership in implementing MSP. This article will discuss the Belgian experiences with MSP. It will give a short historical overview based on legal developments and review the implementation process of a ‘Master Plan’ as a spatial management policy for the Belgian Part of the North Sea. Additionally, this article will reflect on the research that has been done in Belgium to apply a land-use planning approach to the marine environment. The MSP process in Belgium shows that a spatial approach to sea use management is possible despite the lack of a legal zoning framework. However, it concludes that a legal basis for MSP, in addition to the current permit system, would provide a more strategic and integrated framework for ecosystem-based, sea use management.     

Ecosystem-based marine spatial management: Review of concepts, policies, tools, and critical issues

Conventional sectoral management and piecemeal governance are considered less and less appropriate in pursuit of sustainable development. Ecosystem based marine spatial management (EB-MSM) is an approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including human uses, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. Marine spatial planning and ocean zoning are emerging concepts that can support EB-MSM. EB-MSM is driven by high-level goals that managers aim to achieve through the implementation of measures. High-level goals and objectives need to be translated into more operational objectives before specific targets, limits and measures can be elaborated.Monitoring, evaluation and adaptation are necessary to ensure that marine management measures are both effective and efficient. Solid monitoring frameworks are the foundation of adaptive management, as they provide the necessary information to evaluate performance and the effectiveness of management actions. Marine protected areas (MPAs) - possibly set up in networks - constitute a key component in EB-MSM policies and practises and have been applied as a cornerstone in conservation of marine biodiversity, management of fish populations, development of coastal tourism, etc. Moreover, MPA experiences have provided methods and concepts (such as zoning) to a wider EB-MSM context. The assignment of values to biophysical features of the marine environment allows the direct assessment of related management choices and may assist EB-MSM.A range of monetary valuation techniques have been proposed to reduce attributes of goods and services to a single metric. However, in the marine environment such an approach is often over simplistic, and thus less reductive techniques may be necessary. Rather than producing a single metric, the results of non-monetary assessments guide policy allowing weight to be given as necessary to potential areas of conflict and consensus.Strategies to take into account climate change effects and geohazard risks in EB-MSM have been applied or proposed worldwide. EB-MSM regimes must be alert to such risks and flexible to account for changes.     

The ecological and social basis for management of a Red Sea marine-protected area

The Farasan Islands in the southern Red Sea of Saudi Arabia have nationally and internationally significant conservation values, and are important for a range of marine-based resource uses. In preparation for the establishment of a marine protected area around the Farasan Islands and its management, surveys were undertaken to assess the state of the coastal and marine resources, and the issues associated with human activities. Stakeholders were interviewed about issues and their attitudes towards the proposed protected area, and constraints to planning and management were identified. Marine habitats included seagrass beds, mangroves, and extensive areas of fringing reef dominated by a diverse coral community or a mixture of coral and macroalgae. Although used for a diverse range of human activities (fishing, shipping, transport, military purposes, recreation, waste dumping, sand extraction) impacts were minimal and localized. The most immediate threat to the marine resources was over-exploitation by fisheries. The types of management activities appropriate to the MPA, and the scale of management, were constrained by a number of unique and important factors: declines in national financial support for conservation efforts, a lack of trained personnel, difficulties in attracting staff to this remote location, loss of community support, the absence of a tourist base from which economic instruments could be developed, and the lack of local non-governmental organizations. Management recommended for the Farasan Islands Marine-Protected Area included zoning, community participation in management, public awareness, and training as a first step, followed by site-specific management actions, research and monitoring, and infrastructure development.     

The Marine Planning Framework for South Australia: A new ecosystem-based zoning policy for marine management

The Marine Planning Framework for South Australia is a new large-scale, ecosystem-based zoning policy for management of development and use in the marine environment. Utilising the Geographic Information System (GIS), the model establishes four ecologically rated zones, derived from known ecological criteria. A series of goals, objectives and strategies represent the desired outcomes for each of the ecologically rated zones. A Performance Assessment System (PAS) will subsequently evaluate the success of the marine plans. Implementation will be supported by a collaborative whole-of-government approach. Marine plans will facilitate the delivery of long-term protection to the marine environment as a whole ecosystem, whilst enabling a broad range of activities to occur in a sustainable manner.     

海洋功能区划实施评估方法研究——以《温州市海洋功能区划(2013—2020年)》及2018年修订版为例

海洋功能区划实施评估是监督海洋功能区划实施成效,提升海洋管理水平的重要工具。基于一致性理念,以规划蓝图为依据,从海域用途符合性、环境质量标准符合性、开发利用影响三方面集成构建海域利用现状和海洋功能区划的协调性判别方法即海洋功能区划协调性指数,并以温州市为实例进行验证。研究表明：基于一致性理念与海洋功能区划蓝图构建的评估方法可以有效测度海洋功能区划实施成效。海洋功能区划修订具有显著适应性,能够高效契合区域海洋经济与海洋生态文明建设需求。该方法对未来国土空间规划海洋部分的有效实施和修订具有重要参考价值。     

Zoning of marine protected areas: Conflicts and cooperation options in the Galapagos and San Andres archipelagos

Results are reported of an analysis of the conflicts that the zoning of marine protected areas might generate in the Galapagos and San Andres archipelagos given the involved stakeholders’ competing interests. This will assist stakeholders, including the final decision makers, to develop cooperation strategies for managing conflicts. Specifically, the analysis focused on the stakeholders’ conflicting priorities for a number of criteria deemed relevant to the evaluation of alternative geographical zoning configurations. Sets of statistically similar priorities are suggested as bargaining positions to those stakeholders who find it advantageous to seek cooperation with others sharing the same values instead of acting alone when debating MPA zoning alternatives. Another result that will contribute to cooperation strategies is the assessment of the solidarity of cohort groups of stakeholders as reflected by the extent of similarity among their priorities.     

A comparison of zoning analyses to inform the planning of a marine protected area network in Raja Ampat,Indonesia

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are often managed using several management zones, each of which allows different human-uses. Decision support tools can be applied to provide advice on potential zoning configurations. However, few studies used decision support tools to systematically determine good locations for different types of zones that accommodate multiple and often conflicting objectives. Previous studies have mostly used scores to integrate multiple objectives and identify different zoning configurations or explored priority areas for each zone separately. Neither of these approaches ensure that solutions meet both biodiversity and human-use objectives. Nor do they deal with the fact that in zoning plans the whole is not the same as the sum of the parts, the importance of a site depends on how the rest of the sites are managed. The aim of this study was to identify different zoning configurations for the Raja Ampat MPA network in Eastern Indonesia that address biodiversity, sustainable fisheries and community resource access objectives. Identifying zoning configurations is particularly difficult here given the importance of protecting high biodiversity reefs and other conservation values, and the high reliance of local communities on their marine resources. Potential areas for no-take zones were identified that have a small and equitable impact across the fishing grounds of different fishing communities whilst ensuring each community has access to a ‘sustainable fishing zone’. Access to fishing grounds for each community is complicated due to marine tenure restricting where individuals can fish and reliance on traditional types of fishing vessels that restrict long distance travel. This approach for zoning was compared to three others. The first focused on identifying areas only for the no-take zone, a traditional systematic planning approach, and the second on both zones without explicitly accounting for the issue of resource access for each community. The solutions unfairly impacted particular communities. Finally, it is demonstrated how a pre-existing zoning proposal, driven by negotiation can be integrated into systematic planning.     

海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线关系探讨

海洋生态红线制度是我国"五位一体"文明建设的具体要求。为进一步在自然科学与人文科学的联结点上探求深入开展生态红线工作的可能性,文章对比了实施多年的海洋功能区划与历史新阶段提出的海洋生态保护红线的概念和内涵,剖析了两者之间的区别与联系,指出海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线区划在法律地位和管控制度等方面具有一致性,在划分目标、空间管理及划分方法上具有差异性,海洋功能区划以"使用"为主,海洋生态红线以"保护"引领。在此基础上,建议未来海洋生态红线工作的开展可从海洋功能区划借鉴经验,建立完善的管控评估制度,确立生态保护红线的优先地位,处理好海洋功能区划与海洋生态红线区划的关系。同时,海洋生态红线区划应以维持海洋生态系统结构稳定和提高海洋生态系统服务功能为目标,将区域资源环境承载力评估作为一项参考指标,限制低承载区的开发利用,保证海洋生态环境健康可持续发展。     

国土空间规划编制中的海洋功能区划实施评价及思考

对现行海洋功能区划的实施情况进行评价，是编制国土空间规划的重要基础。文章构建了省级海洋功能区划实施评价的基本框架，明确了评价原则、思路、流程与方法，以期为新一轮国土空间规划编制提供依据与参考。针对区划实施中存在的问题及新时期面临的形势，提出了突出重点、因地制宜，全面调查、摸清家底，完善分区、探索分类，严格兼容、加强管控，定期评价、动态调整等对策建议。     

海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系构建及其在泉州湾的应用

基于海岸带综合管理的理念,通过海域生态环境敏感性评价与海域生物多样性保护重要性评价,综合利用地理相关分析法、空间叠置法等定性和定量分区相结合的方法进行海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区划界,提出了海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,将规划区域划分为生物多样性重点保护区、生物多样性养护区和生物多样性保护重点监督区.以福建泉州湾为案例,应用海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系,得出泉州湾生物多样性保护极重要地区是泉州湾河口湿地省级自然保护区,泉州湾生物多样性保护比较重要地区是晋江河口、洛阳江河口、晋江南岸地区及清源山.泉州湾海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区方案共划定26个分区,包括生物多样性重点保护区3个,生物多样性养护区14个,生物多样性保护重点监督区9个.泉州湾的应用结果表明,本研究提出的海洋生物多样性保护空间规划分区体系具有一定的可行性和可操作性,可为泉州湾生物多样性保护管理提供重要科学依据.     

"多规合一"视角下海洋功能区划与 土地利用总体规划的比较分析

文章基于"多规合一"的视角,从概念内涵、规划体系、区别联系等方面,对比分析了海洋功能区划与土地利用总体规划的差异性和关联性。重点分析两者在功能定位、时间定位、层级体系、分类体系、评价制度等方面的差异,研究海洋功能区划需完善之处,并提出完善海洋功能区划期限及目标的设置、明确不同层级的细化标准和要求、增加海洋保护、生态环境整治修复类等功能区类型、加强海洋功能区划实施情况评估制度的建设等对策和建议,为实现海洋功能区划在"多规合一"进程中与土地利用规划等其他规划统筹衔接提供研究基础。     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

辽东湾海洋溢油风险区划及防范对策研究

海洋溢油风险区划是海洋溢油风险管理的重要手段,科学合理的风险区划可为预防和减少事故的发生提供管理依据。文章在海洋溢油风险系统研究和溢油污染事故机理分析的基础上,建立了辽东湾海洋溢油风险区划指标体系和风险量化模型,结合GIS空间分析方法,获得了辽东湾海洋溢油风险区划图。在分析辽东湾海洋溢油风险区主导因子和风险特征的基础上,提出了不同风险区的防范对策,为区域海洋溢油风险管理提供了决策依据。     

A governance analysis of the Galápagos Marine Reserve

The Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR) has faced major governance challenges since its designation in 1998, largely due to the driving forces of immigration from the mainland; a heterogeneous population that has a mainland rather than an island identity; increasing demand for marine resources from global seafood markets; and the rapid growth of tourism. Until recently, the pressures related to these driving forces had challenged measures to promote the effectiveness of the GMR. Decisions taken through the participatory management structure were often undermined by a combination of civil unrest, illegal activities and lack of enforcement. A recent period of relative political stability, coupled with several new measures to address these driving forces, has improved the potential effectiveness of the governance framework. These measures include controls on immigration, the use of remote surveillance technologies to enforce fishing restrictions and a system for the improved management of tourism vessels. Whilst participative and economic incentives will continue to be important, increasing political will to promote long-term sustainability and related improvements in the use of legal incentives, including enforcement technologies and effective prosecutions for those who breach restrictions, are likely to be key elements of the governance framework. It is argued that these measures, coupled with the emergence of a more marine-aware generation of Galápagos citizens, should pave the way for major improvements in the effectiveness of the GMR, hopefully sufficiently strengthening the governance framework to withstand the major driving forces that could otherwise perturb it.     

Perceptions and attitudes regarding marine reserves: a comparison of stakeholder groups in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) developed a zoning plan as part of its overall management plan, fully implemented as of 1997. The plan created several closed areas or harvest refugia in which consumptive activities are prohibited. This research reports results of surveys that we conducted with members of three stakeholder groups in the Florida Keys: commercial fishers, dive operators, and members of local environmental groups. Surveys requested responses regarding the information sources individuals tapped when learning of the zoning plan and the FKNMS; their degree of public participation; their perceptions and acceptance of the zoning strategy and the process of its design; and the expected outcomes of the zoning strategy. Many responses show significant differences among the three groups. Fishers felt highly alienated from the process of zone designation and displayed a sense of anger and powerlessness with respect to what they considered to be an attempt to exclude their group from the harvest refugia. Dive operators demonstrated the highest levels of participation in the designation process, but were concerned that refugia regulations could limit their activities in the future. Members of environmental groups were the strongest supporters of the harvest refugia concept and the FKNMS. This research suggests numerous ways in which marine resource managers could improve their public outreach and information dissemination strategies when developing future harvest refugia and marine protected areas.     

Qualitative risk assessment of multiple-use marine park effectiveness – A case study from NSW,Australia

Effectiveness of the managed-use zones in six multiple-use marine parks located within New South Wales (NSW), Australia, was assessed using qualitative Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) techniques. Permitted activities in these managed-use zones displayed considerable variation between individual marine parks within this one jurisdiction (NSW); many activities appeared to be inconsistent with the stated objectives; and, some were considered high risk. For example, in “habitat protection” zones, 24 out of 76 permitted activities were inconsistently applied across the parks and 10 activities were determined to be high risk. ERA indicated that many commercial fishing activities warranted restriction or prohibition in these zones, including trawling, set lining, drift lining, mesh netting and purse seining operations. The best fit between objectives of the managed-use zones and permitted activities was for the most recent park (Batemans Marine Park). Inconsistencies in application of zoning restrictions between these marine parks could lead to stakeholder confusion, unintentional non-compliance and failure to adequately protect the assets. As a result, it is suggested that these managed-use zones may not be achieving their stated objectives and that greater consistency in application of regulations was required. To implement the ERA recommendations, changes would be required across all of the NSW marine parks and this would be best accommodated during a staged review of all zoning plans. It is concluded that ERA is an effective tool to aid in systematically identifying permissible activities in order to meet marine park objectives.     

海洋功能区划控制体系研究

合理利用海域、改善海洋环境质量和降低海洋开发利用活动负外部性,都需要通过加强海洋开发利用活动的控制来实现,而海洋功能区划是控制和管理开发利用活动的重要手段和工具。从文本控制、图则控制、指标控制、海域使用全过程控制四个方面构建了海洋功能区划控制体系,其中文本控制由目标、原则和文本条款组成;图则控制由图则边界、用海类型和管理要求组成;指标控制由规模控制、结构控制、利用方式控制、海域使用强度和效率控制、环境控制指标构成;海域使用全过程控制由建设期、运行期和结束后构成。通过构建海洋功能区划控制体系,有助于区划目标     

基于网络GIS的海洋功能区划管理信息系统

在分析海洋功能区划信息特征的基础上,结合网络GIS集成技术,提出了海洋功能区划管理信息系统的三层结构框架和系统研制的关键性技术,并应用实例详细说明了系统的实用功能。