The development of ship registration policy in China: Response to flags of convenience

In order to expand registered fleet tonnage and strengthen ship management, China began to introduce a special tax-free ship registration (STFSR) policy in July 2007. However, more than eight years following its implementation, the policy ended in complete failure at the end of 2015. This paper comprehensively evaluates the main content and implementation process of the Chinese STFSR policy, analyzes the effects of the policy, and summarizes the concrete reasons for the policy's failure and lessons to be learnt. A new governance framework is being designed and future directions are being developed to explore how the government can implement a successful ship registry policy. This research is intended to provide new ideas and information to the Chinese shipping industry's policymakers and stakeholders in order to handle the “flagging out” problem, thereby mitigating the current adverse situation of ship flagging overseas while strengthening the management of ship operation.     

The development of world oceans & coasts and concepts of sustainability

The current phase of technological development and expansion in the world economy is leading to greater human activity and development offshore. Some have described this as the colonisation of the oceans, one phase in the wider history of world industrialisation. This study empirically tests notions of ‘industrialisation’ and ‘colonisation’ in the oceans for the first time. It finds that human activity in the oceans has increased by multiple factors in the most recent long term wave of economic development. The methods include the combined use of Raster and R! to overcome methodological challenges to analyse large spatial datasets which map the footprint of human activity. In response to increasing human activity in the oceans, nations and supranational institutions are developing new governance regimes. These regimes are characterised by policy integration and a commitment to sustainability. Sustainable development is a central tenet of most national and international policies for the world's oceans. An analysis of sustainable development terminology within coastal and ocean policy is provided for seven major maritime governance regimes: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, EU, South Africa, UK and the US. The results show that sustainability is highly differentiated in the context of ‘the blue planet’ (oceans and coasts). The diverse interpretations of sustainability present an impasse to measuring progress in the field. Therefore the paper concludes by offering a framework for explanation and interpretation of sustainable development, by linking it to foundational assumptions held by systems of thought or philosophical traditions.     

Decision processes for large marine ecosystems management and policy

A number of studies have speculated on the utility of publicly available information for decision-making in the context of large marine ecosystems (LME) management. An indicator-based study using the pressure-state-response model was carried out among senior decision-makers in the Seychelles government to determine (i) whether the precautionary principle is applied in policy development; (ii) the relative importance of ‘control-and-command’ and market mechanisms in the management of living marine resources; (iii) the influence of pubic opinion in decision-making and (iv) linkages between the various LME management modules. Results indicate that policy-makers in Seychelles apply the precautionary principle in most situations, are more oriented towards the ‘command-and-control’ approach, and are very sensitive to public opinions. The study further indicated that whilst policy-makers in Seychelles acknowledged the use of indicators within the LME strategy, some gaps including limitations of indicators in conveying complex interactions were identified which require further study.     

The stamp of neoliberalism on the UK tonnage tax and the implications for British seafaring

In 2000 the UK adopted a tonnage tax strategy on ships and related businesses as the main strategy for revitalising its declining shipping industry. In line with EU policy on shipping, UK registered shipping companies were offered fiscal incentives based on reduced corporation taxes while labour was offered support for training. Almost a decade since the introduction of the tax it is clear that the strategy has delivered for business but not for labour. This paper considers the nature and limits of state intervention per se in declining economic sectors in the context of globalisation and a neoliberal approach to governance. It concludes that the problem is often not state intervention but rather the form of intervention, namely one that panders to, and is constrained by, neoliberalism.     

The evolution of coastal wetland policy in developed countries and Korea

This paper reviews the evolution of the coastal wetland policy in developed countries, leading to finding 3 eras of development of the coastal wetland policy. Before having recognized the wetland functions and services until 1960s, the economic focus had been prevalent, allowing wetland to be exploited mainly for economic uses. But as the wetland ecosystem functions came to be realized, policies to preserve them had been introduced in developed countries, by which the wetland policy had transited ‘step by step’ from an economic to an ecological focus. Through these steps, developed countries came to have the legal and institutional systems for wetland preservation, mitigation and restoration, and management for the wise and sustainable use in conformity to the international standards such as the Ramsar Convention and others since 1990. Thus, they have reached more complete ecological focus in their wetland management with the increase in relevant socio-cultural activities such as the ecosystem education, ecotourism, etc. Roughly speaking, it led to the 3 ‘eras’: the wetland exploitive era, policy transition era, wetland conservation era. In this vein, Korea also experienced a similar exploitive era of economic focus when wetland conversion had been dominated by agriculture, residence and industry before 1990s. From then till 2005, Korea had experienced sufferings from conflicts arising from large reclamation projects such as those in Shihwa and Saemangum, through which she had spent policy transition era and then began to introduce a new policy of ecological focus as in developed countries. Korea can be described as entering a new era of ecological focus with the introduction of relevant advanced systems such as reinforced 10 year of wetland conversion plan with stricter review and permit system, wetland protected area system, special plan to restore existing reclaimed areas to original wetlands, etc.     

我国海洋捕捞业政策变迁、结构特征及优化研究——基于政策文本的量化分析

自20世纪80年代以来,我国出台了众多海洋捕捞相关政策,厘清这些政策变迁规律对海洋捕捞业的健康发展具有重要意义。本文对1986年以来我国海洋捕捞业的政策文本展开量化分析,构建政策时间维度、政策工具维度、政策价值维度三维政策文本分析框架,梳理当前捕捞业政策变迁和结构特征,并深入分析了捕捞业政策与现实的匹配性。研究发现,海洋捕捞业的部分政策目标之间存在一定的冲突和矛盾;政策工具体系全面,但不同政策工具数量分布不均衡;早期政策的经济价值取向突出,社会、生态价值相对不足,需要适时调整政策价值取向。未来应明确政策目标,推动海洋捕捞管理范式由投入控制向产出控制的转变;优化政策工具组合,引导渔民自觉养护海洋渔业资源,提高海洋捕捞业政策的有效性;整合政策价值取向,协调产业发展、资源养护和渔民利益的关系,推动海洋捕捞可持续发展。     

Analysis of accidents in Greek shipping during the pre- and post-ISM period

In shipping, safety depends on the reliability of the technical and human components of the ship-system, although the marine environment itself may sometimes be so hostile as to give rise to accidents that are beyond technical and human control. The need for a continuous analysis of shipping accidents is dictated by the accumulated evidence for the predominance of the human factor and the ever-increasing pressure for further improvement on the safety record of shipping. In this context, the effectiveness of enforced regulations towards the promotion of safety policy in shipping is assessed and the debate and focus on this issue are maintained.     

Diversifying fisheries into tourism in Taiwan: Experiences and prospects

Tourism is accepted as natural part of the socioeconomic fabric and is juxtaposed with fisheries in some coastal areas in Taiwan. This is the result of governmental policy on diversifying fisheries into tourism. This paper examines how this policy plays out in the context of a declining offshore fisheries industry and a rising demand for marine leisure opportunities. The paper utilizes documentary analysis and personal interviews with relevant stakeholders. It shows diversifying fisheries into tourism is the right direction for progress on the government agenda. However, conflicts between resource users, lack of community capacity, fisher’s business skills, and human resources in local governments, and low market penetration combined together to militate against the success of the policy. It argues for the need to establish negotiation mechanisms, build community capacity, encourage education and training programs, and introduce new coastal economic activities for future improvement. The paper finally suggests a holistic approach with integrated coastal management practices for the fisheries diversification development.     

MAritime RISk Assessment (MARISA), a fuzzy approach to define an individual ship risk factor

This paper presents a fuzzy approach for the MAritime RISk Assessment (MARISA) applied to safety at sea. The aim of this work is to define automatically an individual ship risk factor which could be used in a decision making system. To achieve this purpose, a modular and hierarchical structure using fuzzy logic has been developed. It allows us to obtain a fuzzy risk factor (FRF) composed of a static risk factor (SRF) and a dynamic risk factor (DRF). The static risk factor assessment takes into account several static data relative to the ship (age, flag, gross tonnage, number of companies, duration of detention and type). The dynamic risk factor is evaluated by considering the meteorological conditions (sea state, wind speed and visibility) and the moment of the day. Moreover, the MARISA graphic interface developed with the Labview software is presented. This interface allows several simulations to be carried out to validate the fuzzy method proposed. Simulation results are presented.     

天津建设北方国际航运中心政策评价——基于PMC指数模型

文章以北方国际航运中心相关政策为研究对象,从其作用机理出发,通过Python脚本实现高频词提取,构建了适用于北方国际航运中心政策的PMC评价指标体系,对其中6项具有代表性的专项政策进行实证分析。结果表明,天津市委出台的政策的PMC指数略高于国务院出台政策;政策作用对象与政策内容间存在正相关性;虽然目前北方国际航运中心政策均处于良好级别且随时间推移得分呈现上升趋势,但仍存在港城联动性不足、保障措施不足、政策作用的具体对象不完善等问题。基于以上问题,提出增强港城联动性、优化政策保障措施、细化政策应用对象等相应的政策建议,以期进一步完善国际航运中心政策内容。     

Globalisation and de-regulation in the maritime industry

The development of the Flags of Convenience (FOC) system has had serious repercussions for labour as shipowners, in search of cheaper crews, have recruited ‘crews of convenience’ from developing nations. This paper examines the record of FOCs to analyse the effects of globalisation upon the working lives of seafarers. The method used will be to compare the regimes of FOCs, and this will be done by the analysis of a flag state conformance index (FLASCI) created by the authors, which utilises a large number of measures of a state's capacity to maintain and enforce a regulatory regime for the vessels flying its flag.     

Defining standard statistical coastal regions for Ireland

In order to develop a policy framework and guidelines for improving a national approach to the management of Irish coastal regions and associated resources one first needs to be able to define what is meant by ‘a coastal region’ in an Irish context and secondly to know how the socio-economic characteristics of Irish coastal populations differ from the national perspective. This paper is therefore concerned with the coastal economy and the socio-economic characteristics of Ireland's coastal regions. These coastal regions are defined at a number of alternative levels of spatial aggregation. The compilation of coastal economic data is important when one considers the recommendations of the European Council and Parliament concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the requirements of policies such as Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union and the EU Marine Framework Strategy Directive.     

巴拿马运河扩建下的运河通行费博弈

巴拿马运河是世界主要运河之一,其扩建对全球航运市场影响巨大。文章建立竞争博弈模型,以巴拿马运河管理局和苏伊士运河管理局为博弈主体,对巴拿马运河扩建后双方运河通行费的调整策略进行博弈模型分析和赋值仿真。研究表明:巴拿马运河扩建后,巴拿马运河管理局应采取通行费小幅降价的策略,以吸引更多船舶通货量,尽快收回扩建成本;苏伊士运河的航运市场份额将有所缩减,但苏伊士运河管理局仍应维持现有通行费水平;双方以长远利益为目标选择策略,才能获得更高收益。     

Incentive policy for reduction of emission from ships: A case study of China

Particulate matter (PM) emissions from ships in ports are a major contributor to air pollution and smog in port cities. The issue of how to reduce PM emissions has become a critical concern for port city residents and governments. This paper establishes an incentive policy to reduce PM emissions from ships in ports. Using a Panamax bulk carrier as a case study, eight alternative approaches that could be adopted by shipping companies are compared and their operational benefits are estimated. By restricting the analysis to emission control areas (ECAs), the net present value (NPV) model shows that the diesel particulate filter (DPF) is the most advantageous approach with the highest NPV, while the exhaust gas scrubber (EGS) approach is the most economically inefficient. Meanwhile, due to DPF's excellent performance in PM abatement, it is suggested that governments should prioritize the DPF approach when promoting the application of emission reduction technologies. From the perspective of social welfare, a positive social benefit of about US $20,000 will be generated over the life cycle of a ship. However, a low government pricing in China will reduce shipping companies’ operational performance as the emission control zone (ECZ) gradually expands. As a result, an appropriate subsidy scheme is necessary to encourage shipping companies to apply emission reduction technologies.     

Managing sino-ghanaian fishery relations: A political ecology approach

A global recurring challenge for marine managers and policy makers is the effective management of fisheries conflicts. This study demonstrates the usefulness of a political ecology approach in understanding the complexity of conflict in increasingly internationalized national fisheries. By doing so it aims to provide an alternative approach to the environmental security perspectives, predicated on scarcity narratives, that often underpin policy on fishery conflicts. Using a localised example of industrial Chinese and local artisanal fishermen conflict in Ghana, this paper reveals a complex account of contesting ‘access’ to resources, in material and nonmaterial terms, that moves beyond an ‘absolute scarcity’ driven narrative. The conflict is shown to be one, in part, focussed around spatially fixed areas as well as moral claims of correct ways of fishing that reflect social tensions within the local fishing community. Both aspects show long term motivations to keep resource access, rather than being concerned with in the moment struggles over scarce resources. This work also highlights the existence of cooperation between groups of artisanal fishermen involved in transhipment with Chinese fishermen, revealing the complex nexus of winners and losers produced by environmental, social and political factors. In sum, policy must acknowledge that conflict is rarely produced purely by scarcity, and that broader social and political factors often combine in a variety of forms to produce localised conflict. If these complexities are ignored, fisheries policy runs the risk of unintentionally exacerbating conflicts and disadvantaging those who it aims to help.     

China''s distant water fisheries and its response to flag state responsibilities

The paper discusses China's policy adjustment responding to flag state responsibilities of the Fish Stocks Agreement and the Compliance Agreement. China's incorporation and application of the management measures of the two instruments into its domestic legislations regarding distant water fishing vessels is examined to illustrate China's compliance as a flag state. It will be shown that China has taken concrete steps to bring its management practice in line with the requirements of international fisheries instruments and has endeavoured to respond to the two instruments positively. However, China needs to set priorities to improve its overall management capacity so as to make it ready to ratify the two instruments and to live up to their terms.     

Monitoring the state of the Solent

The development of the State of the Solent report and establishment of a set of coastal and marine indicators to measure the ‘health’ of the Solent was one of the original Flagship Projects developed when the Solent Forum was established in 1992. It was recognised that integrated coastal zone management requires robust indicators of sustainability that gauge the ‘health’ of the coast in relation to environmental, economic and social activity. The indicators selected for the Solent were, as far as possible, nested within established indicator sets that had been developed at the national and European levels. In developing the coastal sustainability indicators for the Solent and publishing the State of the Solent reports, a number of lessons were learned related to data compilation and the benefits of a participatory process to develop the indicators.     

The land-based jobs market for seafarers: Consequences of market imbalance and policy implications

Concern has existed for some time that the decline of the British shipping industry is resulting in the UK economy losing its maritime skills base. The effects of this loss could extend beyond the shipping industry because former seafarers are employed in other maritime related businesses besides shipping ashore. A study undertaken during 1995 and 1996 identified the economy’s requirement for people with seafaring experience in land based jobs and assessed the consequences of a shortfall in supply of seafarers to fill such jobs. This paper is mainly concerned with the supply aspects and policy implications of that study.     

Ocean shipping: survival at rock bottom

A severe crisis developed in ocean shipping in 1982. Freight rates fell to their lowest levels since mid-1977. The tonnage surplus again increased dramatically, in the tanker and the bulker sections of the freight markets. Laid-up or otherwise inactive shipping rose to its highest ever figures. Under-utilization of their ships, and sharply reduced freight revenues have drastically affected the profitability of shipping companies. These are some of the findings contained in the latest annual maritime report prepared by Dr Hans Böhme, of the Kiel Institut für Weltwirtschaft, which was published in German as ‘Weltseeverkehr: Überleben auf der Talsohle’ in the Institute's house journal, ‘Die Weltwirtschaft’, No 2, 1982. The author summarizes the review below.