煤层割理的形成机理及在煤层气勘探开发评价中的意义

在系统研究鄂尔多斯东缘晚古生代煤层割理的基础上，结合煤化作用和油气生成研究新成果，对煤层割理的形成机理进行了探讨。认为割理是煤化作用过程中，煤因生成水、烃及其它气体而产生收缩内应力和高孔隙流体压力，当其超过煤的力学强度时，致使煤发生张性破裂而形成。割理的原始走向受割理形成时期的古地应力场控制。进而指出中变质光亮煤和半亮煤中割理最发育，因此这些煤层分布区是煤层气勘探开发的优选靶区。     

Characteristics and origins of coal cleat: A review

Cleats are natural opening-mode fractures in coal beds. They account for most of the permeability and much of the porosity of coalbed gas reservoirs and can have a significant effect on the success of engineering procedures such as cavity stimulations. Because permeability and stimulation success are commonly limiting factors in gas well performance, knowledge of cleat characteristics and origins is essential for successful exploration and production. Although the coal–cleat literature spans at least 160 years, mining issues have been the principal focus, and quantitative data are almost exclusively limited to orientation and spacing information. Few data are available on apertures, heights, lengths, connectivity, and the relation of cleat formation to diagenesis, characteristics that are critical to permeability. Moreover, recent studies of cleat orientation patterns and fracture style suggest that new investigations of even these well-studied parameters can yield insight into coal permeability. More effective predictions of cleat patterns will come from advances in understanding cleat origins. Although cleat formation has been speculatively attributed to diagenetic and/or tectonic processes, a viable mechanical process for creating cleats has yet to be demonstrated. Progress in this area may come from recent developments in fracture mechanics and in coal geochemistry.     

沁水盆地煤层割理的充填特征及形成过程

煤层作为煤层气的源岩和储集层,与常规天然气储层不同在于煤储层是一种双孔隙岩层,由基质孔隙和裂隙组成,且有自身独特的割理系统,基质孔隙和割理的大小、形态、孔隙度和连通性等决定了煤层气的储集、运移和产出,其中以割理系统对煤层气的产出最为重要。本文以沁水煤田为例,对煤层割理、割理填充物类型、充填方式、自生矿物形成时代进行了研究,总结了填充物形成的先后顺序,并根据填充物的形成时代、煤层埋藏史等提出了割理形成的3种机制：埋藏增压机制;岩浆诱发机制;抬升卸压机制。     

Developmental geology of coalbed methane from shallow to deep in Rocky Mountain basins and in Cook Inlet–Matanuska basin, Alaska, U.S.A. and Canada

The Rocky Mountain basins of western North America contain vast deposits of coal of Cretaceous through early Tertiary age. Coalbed methane is produced in Rocky Mountain basins at depths ranging from 45 m (150 ft) to 1,981 m (6,500 ft) from coal of lignite to low-volatile bituminous rank. Although some production has been established in almost all Rocky Mountain basins, commercial production occurs in only a few. Despite more than two decades of exploration for coalbed methane in the Rocky Mountain region, it is still difficult to predict production characteristics of coalbed methane wells prior to drilling. Commonly cited problems include low permeabilities, high water production, and coals that are significantly undersaturated with respect to methane. Sources of coalbed gases can be early biogenic, formed during the early stages of coalification, thermogenic, formed during the main stages of coalification, or late stage biogenic, formed as a result of the reintroduction of methane-generating bacteria by groundwater after uplift and erosion. Examples of all three types of coalbed gases, and combinations of more than one type, can be found in the Rocky Mountain region. Coals in the Rocky Mountain region achieved their present ranks largely as a result of burial beneath sediments that accumulated during the Laramide orogeny (Late Cretaceous through the end of the Eocene) or shortly after. Thermal events since the end of the orogeny have also locally elevated coal ranks. Coal beds in the upper part of high-volatile A bituminous rank or greater commonly occur within much more extensive basin-centered gas deposits which cover large areas of the deeper parts of most Rocky Mountain basins. Within these basin-centered deposits all lithologies, including coals, sandstones, and shales, are gas saturated, and very little water is produced. The interbedded coals and carbonaceous shales are probably the source of much of this gas. Basin-centered gas deposits become overpressured from hydrocarbon generation as they form, and this overpressuring is probably responsible for driving out most of the water. Sandstone permeabilities are low, in part because of diagenesis caused by highly reactive water given off during the early stages of coalification. Coals within these basin-centered deposits commonly have high gas contents and produce little water, but they generally occur at depths greater than 5,000 ft and have low permeabilities. Significant uplift and removal of overburden has occurred throughout the Rocky Mountain region since the end of the Eocene, and much of this erosion occurred after regional uplift began about 10 Ma. The removal of overburden generally causes methane saturation levels in coals to decrease, and thus a significant drop in pressure is required to initiate methane production. The most successful coalbed methane production in the Rocky Mountain region occurs in areas where gas contents were increased by post-Eocene thermal events and/or the generation of late-stage biogenic gas. Methane-generating bacteria were apparently reintroduced into the coals in some areas after uplift and erosion, and subsequent changes in pressure and temperature, allowed surface waters to rewater the coals. Groundwater may also help open up cleat systems making coals more permeable to methane. If water production is excessive, however, the economics of producing methane are impacted by the cost of water disposal.     

Inducing fractures and increasing cleat apertures in a bituminous coal under isotropic stress via application of microwave energy

For the degassing of coal seams, either prior to mining or in un-minable seams to obtain coalbed methane, it is the combination of cleat frequency, aperture, connectivity, stress, and mineral occlusions that control permeability. Unfortunately, many potential coalbeds have limited permeability and are thus marginal for economic methane extraction. Enhanced coalbed methane production, with concurrent CO₂ sequestration is also challenging due to limited CO₂ injectivity. Microwave energy can, in the absence of confining stress, induce fractures in coal. Here, creation of new fractures and increasing existing cleat apertures via short burst, high-energy microwave energy was evaluated for an isotropically stressed and an unstressed bituminous coal core. A microwave-transparent argon gas pressurized (1000 psi) polycarbonate vessel was constructed to apply isotropic stress simulating ~ 1800 foot depth. Cleat frequency and distribution was determined for the two cores via micro-focused X-ray computed tomography. Evaluation occurred before and after microwave exposure with and without the application of isotropic stress during exposure. Optical microscopy was performed for tomography cleat aperture calibration and also to examine lithotypes influences on fracture: initiation, propagation, frequency, and orientation. It was confirmed that new fractures are induced via high-energy microwave exposure in an unconfined bituminous core and that the aperture increased in existing cleats. Cleat/fracture volume, following microwave exposure increased from 1.8% to 16.1% of the unconfined core volume. For the first time, similar observations of fracture generation and aperture enhancement in coal were also determined for microwave exposure under isotropic stress conditions. An existing cleat aperture, determined from calibrated X-ray computed tomography increased from 0.17 mm to 0.32 mm. The cleat/fracture volume increased from 0.5% to 5.5%. Optical microscopy indicated that fracture initiated likely occurred in at least some cases at fusain microlithotypes. Presumably this was due to the open pore volumes and potential for bulk water presence or steam pressure buildup in these locations. For the major induced fractures, they were mostly horizontal (parallel to the bedding plane) and often contained within lithotype bands. Thus it appears likely that microwaves have the potential to enhance the communication between horizontal wellbore and existing cleat network, in coal seams at depth, for improved gas recovery or CO₂ injection.     

Anisotropy of gas permeability associated with cleat pattern in a coal seam of the Kushiro coalfield in Japan

An underground investigation has been performed in a subbituminous coal seam exhibiting a particular cleat pattern in the Kushiro coalfield, Japan. The coal cleat pattern shows some analogy to isolated straight joints, and is believed to have been formed during the late Tertiary period by a compressive tectonic stress, roughly in the east–west direction. Three cylindrical coal specimens representing the three orthogonal axes of the coal seam with respect to the bedding plane and its associated cleat were cored from a large block of coal. Gas permeabilities of the three coal specimens were measured under the same hydrostatic pressure conditions. Results clearly revealed anisotropy in permeability of the coal seam under relatively low confining pressures of less than about 12 MPa. The specimen cored parallel to both the bedding plane and cleat strike showed the highest permeability, even though the cleats were partly filled with calcite and clay minerals. The permeability in this direction was 2.5 times higher than perpendicular to the bedding plane, and 3 times higher than in the direction parallel to the bedding plane but perpendicular to the cleat strike. This suggests that the cleats play a greater role than bedding planes in controlling fluid flow in the coal seam. The permeability in the three orientations, however, converged to the same value at confining pressures above about 16 MPa. This may suggest that both cleats and bedding planes in a coal seam can close due to earth pressure if the coal seam is located below a certain depth. It further indicates that the traditional view that gas permeability is always greater parallel to the coal bedding than perpendicular to it should be reconsidered.     

不同变质变形煤储层孔隙特征与煤层气可采性

煤储层孔隙是煤层气的主要聚集场所和运移通道,煤储层孔隙结构不仅制约着煤层气的含气量,而且对其可采性也有重要影响。文中选取淮北煤田和沁水盆地不同矿区有代表性的煤样,通过对研究区不同变质与变形煤样的宏微观构造观测、镜质组反射率与孔隙度测试以及压汞实验分析,研究了不同变质变形煤储层孔隙结构特征及其对煤层气可采性的制约。研究结果表明,按照不同的变质变形特征将研究区煤储层主要划分为5类,即:高变质较强至强变形程度煤储层(Ⅰ类)、高变质较弱变形程度煤储层(Ⅱ类)、中变质较强变形程度煤储层(Ⅲ类)、中变质较弱变形程度煤储层(Ⅳ类)及低变质强变形程度煤储层(Ⅴ类)。不同变质变形煤储层的孔隙结构具有以下特征:Ⅰ类和Ⅱ类煤储层吸附孔占主导,Ⅰ类煤储层孔隙连通性差,Ⅱ类煤储层因后期叠加了构造裂隙,孔隙连通性变好;Ⅲ类煤储层中孔、大孔增多,但有效孔隙少,孔隙连通性变差;Ⅳ类煤储层吸附孔较多,中孔、大孔中等,且煤储层内生裂隙发育,孔隙具有较好的连通性,渗透性明显变好;Ⅴ类煤储层吸附孔含量较低,中孔较发育,大孔不太发育,有效孔隙少,孔隙连通性差。由此,变质程度高且叠加了一定构造变形的煤储层(Ⅱ类)以及中等变质程度变形较弱且内生裂隙发育的煤储层(Ⅳ类),其煤层气有较好的渗透性,可采性较好。     

Optical properties of pseudovitrinite; implications for its origin

A set of Pennsylvanian coals from the North American coal basins, ranging in vitrinite reflectance from 0.65% to 1.75%, was examined, with special emphasis on the optical properties of pseudovitrinite. The results suggest that pseudovitrinite originates from the same material as telocollinite. Slits in the pseudovitrinite seem to have originated in situ due to low-temperature oxidation of woody material; their opening might have been facilitated by devolatilization during coalification. The dominant orientation of the slits is perpendicular to bedding. The intensity and orientation of the slits in pseudovitrinite could be important factors in predicting coalbed gas extraction from coal.     

Determination of the cleat angle distribution of the RECOPOL coal seams, using CT-scans and image analysis on drilling cuttings and coal blocks

Cleat orientation, cleat frequency and cleat angle distribution of deep coal seams are only available by the use of drilling cores and from coal mine samples. Coal drilling cuttings are a cheap and fast alternative to measure cleat angle distributions with the use of image analysis techniques. In this study oriented coal samples and drilling cuttings of the RECOPOL field experiment are compared and used to explain and validate the proposed method. In other words, cleat angle distributions from drilling cuttings are measured by image analysis. The geological framework of the polish coals is described. The image analysis methodologies for the measurement of fracture faces of cuttings and from CT-scan images, derived from these coals, are explained. The results of the methods on the cuttings are compared with cleat orientation distributions from CT-scans and artificial fragments from coal blocks of the same seams. These evaluations show high agreements between the methods. The cleat angle distributions of drilling cuttings of four seams are compared with the cleat orientation distributions of a regional structural geological study. The high correlation in this study shows that cleat angle distributions of coal seams can be used as input parameters for reservoir modelling.     

The use of numerical simulation in predicting coalbed methane producibility from the Gates coals, Alberta Inner Foothills, Canada: Comparison with Mannville coal CBM production in the Alberta Syncline

Two medium to low volatile bituminous rank coals in the Lower Cretaceous Gates Formation (Mannville equivalent), Inner Foothills of Alberta, were cored as part of a coalbed methane exploration program. The target seams (Seam 4 and Seam 10) were intersected at 652 m and 605 m, respectively. The coals were bright banded, relatively competent and reasonably cleated, with cleat spacing between 5–20 mm. The FMI (Formation Micro-Imaging) log identified two primary fracture directions, corresponding to both face and butt cleats, which were developed almost equally in some coal intervals. The amount of shearing was limited, in spite of the presence of numerous thrust faults and fold structures in the corehole vicinity. Total gas content was high, with an average of 17.7 cm³/g (arb; 568.1 scf/t). An adsorption isotherm of the thick Seam 4 showed gas saturation levels of 90% at in-situ reservoir conditions. Methane content was 92–96% and carbon dioxide levels were less than 2%. Isotopic studies on the methane confirmed the thermogenic origin of the gas, as anticipated based on the coal rank. The coal seams were fracture stimulated using 50/50 nitrogen and fresh water along with 9 to 12 tons of 12/20 mesh sand used as a proppant. It is believed that the coals were not stimulated properly because of the small proppant volume and the complex — and often unpredictable — fracture pattern in coals, particularly in the Inner Foothills region that has high stress anisotropy. An injectivity test showed coal absolute permeability to be less than 1 mD, the skin to be −  2 (indicating a slightly damaged coal) and water saturation in the cleats to be 90%. A four-month production test was conducted; gas rates declined from 930 to 310 m³/d (33 to 11 MCFD) and water rates were low (< 5 BWD). Produced water was saline (TDS was 20,000 mg/L) and high in chloride and bicarbonate ions. Production testing was followed by history matching and numerical simulation, which consisted of numerous vertical and horizontal well development scenarios and other parameters. Simulating multiple parallel horizontal wells in the Gates coals resulted in the highest peak gas production rates, cumulative production and recovery efficiencies, in agreement with public data from the Mannville coals in the deeper part of the Alberta Syncline. The positive effect of constructive interference in depressurizing the coal reservoirs and accelerating gas production over short periods of time was demonstrated. Coal quality data from a nearby underground mine shows that drilling horizontal wellbores in the Gates coals would be challenging because of unfavourable geomechanical properties, such as low cohesion and unconfined compressive strength values, and structural complexity.     

塔里木盆地深部煤层失稳机理及防塌钻井液技术

针对塔里木盆地深部煤层钻井过程中钻井液漏失和井壁垮塌等井下复杂问题,采用镜质体反射率分析、X射线衍射、扫描电镜等方法测试了煤的微观结构和理化性能。明确了煤层的失稳机理:煤中固定碳质量分数平均超过60%,镜质体反射率大于1.0%,煤化程度高、性脆、易破碎;黏土矿物总的体积分数低于25%,黏土中不含强水敏性矿物蒙脱石;煤层割理呈网状分布,其宽度主要集中在1~10 μm,易漏失。综合判定煤层失稳类型为力学失稳。以煤层微观结构为目标,结合钻井液材料粒度分布,优选沥青类封堵剂,设计出适用于煤层的沥青质聚磺防塌钻井液体系,其性能测试结果表明:沥青质聚磺防塌钻井液滤失量低、泥饼薄,能有效封堵煤的绝大部分割理,减少钻井液侵入量,防止煤层垮塌。研究成果一定程度上为塔里木盆地深部煤层的安全高效钻井提供技术保障。      

Geological controls on the formation and distribution of gas in British coal measure strata

The methane, ethane, higher alkanes and nitrogen found in British coal seams are residual products of coalification occasionally complemented by petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. Carbon dioxide, a minor constituent of coal seam gas, may have been introduced during the phase of cleat mineralisation following uplift. Helium and argon are considered to be radiogenic in origin.Variations in seam methane content with depth, geographic location and rank can be interpreted in terms of the coalification and erosion history of a coalfield. However, the limitations inherent in an analysis in which coal rank is represented by a single parameter must be recognised.There are indications that the methane content of a seam is not likely to exceed the methane sorption capacity of the coal determined at a temperature commensurate with that obtaining at the maximum burial depth.Research in the East Midlands coalfield suggests that structurally controlled migration of coalification gas was contemporaneous with folding. During the Permo-Carboniferous erosion period gas was lost from outcropping seams. Subsequently, the bulk permeability of the seams must have been reduced, perhaps as a result of cleat mineralisation, because no re-distribution of methane appears to have occurred in response to later (Tertiary) deformation and gas contents of seams at incrop below the base of the Permo-Triassic have remained zero.Data on the effects of faulting on seam gas contents are few but the expectation is that faults, of appropriate age and orientation, whilst inhibiting in-seam migration may, in some instances have aided cross-measures movement of gas. Elevated seam ethane and propane contents are frequently encountered in seams disturbed by oil-bearing faults.     

热-力作用原煤变形特征与力学性质演化试验研究

开展原煤在热-力作用下煤热膨胀与吸附瓦斯解吸研究对于深入理解深部煤岩失稳破坏机制有重要意义。通过对四川白皎矿和徐州张双楼矿的原煤施加不同温度-应力条件,获取煤的热变形、解吸气体运移以及煤的力学性质的热响应。试验结果表明:白皎煤在低于35℃条件下表现为膨胀变形;在高于35℃恒温环境下,煤体变形表现为先膨胀后收缩趋势。张双楼煤在低于60℃条件下表现为先膨胀后会出现收缩;在高于60℃恒温环境下,煤样趋向整体膨胀。其结果说明,煤岩在热环境中的变形行为取决于煤基质的热膨胀与解吸收缩之间的竞争结果。煤吸热升温后孔隙中解吸气体数量增多,煤样在受载压缩变形过程中显现出复杂解吸气体排放特征,包括煤中原生孔隙裂隙压缩闭合排出气体,煤体内不均匀变形导致气体流动,煤体开裂导致气体回流。力学测试结果表明,煤样的单轴抗压强度以及弹性模量随着环境温度上升均表现出下降趋势。其结果为深入理解深部煤层在热-力耦合下渗透率与强度变化机制提供试验依据。     

华北煤系变形特征与煤矿瓦斯赋存规律

瓦斯既是煤矿灾害的致灾因素之一,又是重要的清洁能源,厘清煤系变形瓦斯赋存规律是煤矿瓦斯灾害预防和煤层气高效开发的基础。以华北煤系为研究对象,以构造演化及控制为主线,运用板块构造、构造演化和瓦斯赋存构造逐级控制等理论,系统研究华北煤系变形特征与煤矿瓦斯赋存规律。结果表明,华北板块处于三大构造域相互作用交接的中心,控制着华北板块的形成与演化,华北板块与周缘板块之间的相互作用制约煤系的形成、赋存和变形,控制构造煤的形成与分布,同时控制着煤矿瓦斯的生成、运移和保存;华北煤系变形强度具有由板缘向板内、由挤压型造山带向远离造山带减弱的趋势;构造煤的形成与分布和构造演化过程中煤系变形有较好的一致性,构造煤的发育程度也具有由板缘向板内以及由靠近挤压型造山带向远离造山带减弱的趋势,伸展构造带构造煤不发育,但伸展背景下形成的大型滑脱构造容易形成成层发育的构造煤;华北煤矿瓦斯分布具有明显的区带特征,可划分为7个高突瓦斯区和6个低瓦斯区,进一步划分为15个高(突)瓦斯带和13个低瓦斯带。研究成果对国家有的放矢的瓦斯治理和煤层气开发具有重要的指导意义。      

鄂尔多斯盆地东缘煤层含气量的构造控制作用

针对鄂尔多斯盆地东缘不同地区煤层含气量分布不同的特点,通过分析三交-柳林、大宁-吉县和韩城地区的构造及其各主采煤层含气量分布特征,探讨了鄂尔多斯盆地东缘3个地区煤层含气量分布的构造控制作用。结果表明,燕山期构造运动是整个鄂尔多斯盆地东缘的关键构造事件;本区构造作用对煤层含气量分布的控制主要体现为控制煤层赋存状态,而构造部位、构造展布和构造性质,则控制煤的变质作用以及煤层气的保存条件;三交-柳林地区仅局部单斜构造为煤层气有利富集区,大宁-吉县地区煤层气赋存构造条件较好,应作为鄂尔多斯盆地东缘煤层气勘探开发的重点区域,韩城东部矿区煤层气赋存较差,且北压南拉的构造格局常造成含气量南低北高。      

淮南煤田煤层气成藏动力学系统的机制与地质模型研究

淮南煤田由次生生物成因和热成因气组成的混合型煤层气藏,受各种地质和水文地质条件的影响和控制。本文通过热流场和地温场、古构造应力场和原地应力场以及地下水动力场的系统分析,探讨了煤层气成藏动力学系统的形成机制,进而提出了相应的成藏地质模型。淮南煤田的煤层气藏虽然属向斜式(或盆心)聚气模型,但是,该模型强调,作为附加气源的次生生物气的补充,成藏动力学系统演化、构造样式和能量场的耦合关系,是混合型煤层气富集成藏的主因。      

煤层气勘探开发中的割理研究

介绍了割理的识别准则、组合类型、面割理和端割理的严格定义、割理的研究内容、割理形成的地质控制因素和割理对煤层渗透性的控制作用。      

煤层显微煤岩类型与裂隙分布的关系

综合利用显微地层学和统计学方法,以河东煤田中北部8#煤层为例,研究了煤层显微煤岩类型与煤层裂隙分布的关系。结果表明,裂隙在不同显微煤岩类型煤体中的分布存在较大的差异,同时裂隙分布的位置与显微煤岩类型的组合序列有关。其结果对煤层气资源评价和煤层渗透性预测具有重要的指导意义。      

Application of X-ray computed tomography for analyzing cleat spacing and cleat aperture in coal samples

New techniques to determine distributions of cleat aperture, cleat orientation and cleat spacing from CT scans have been developed. For cleat orientation and spacing distributions, two different coal blocks were scanned. The CT scans have been analyzed for the three orthogonal directions. Histograms of the cleat orientations are bimodal, expressing the typical cleat texture of face and butt cleats and bedding perpendicular relaxation fractures. Deviations up to 20° from the peak values in the cleat orientation distributions were used as input for automated image analysis of cleat spacing. Distributions of the cleat spacing measurements are related to the face and butt cleat directions. The term “relevant cleat length” is introduced as a measure to extract the amount of cleat length involved with the cleat spacing measurements. The ratio ranges from 0.03 to 0.38 and expresses the difference in cleat texture in both samples. Cleat spacing versus relevant cleat length shows sample specific patterns for face cleat, butt cleat and bedding. To describe cleat aperture quantitatively, peak height and missing attenuation have been used. The image of a cleat was seen as a convolution of a rectangular fracture profile with a Gaussian point spread function.     

煤中微量元素富集的主要因素分析

在对兖州矿区煤中微量元素成因分析及总结前人结论的基础上,将煤中微量元素富集因素划分为原生、次生和后生三个阶段,分别对每一个阶段影响微量元素富集的主要因素进行研究和分析。结果表明,煤在形成的过程中影响微量元素迁移、富集的因素很多,植物生长的种类、生长中水化学条件、泥炭沼泽形成中大气、海水的入侵、煤在煤化过程中岩浆热液的作用、煤与顶、底板岩石的物质交换作用等都影响着煤中微量元素富集。因此,煤中微量元素的形成、聚集是煤在形成的各个时期、各种地质因素综合影响的结果。