Laboratory sustained turbidity currents form elongate ridges at channel mouths

The turbulent flow structure, suspended sediment dynamics and deposits of experimental sustained turbidity currents exiting a channel across a break in slope into a wide tank are documented. The data shed light on the flow evolution and deposit geometry of analogous natural channel‐fed submarine fans. Flows generated in a 0·3 m wide, sloping (0°, 6°, 9° or 20°) channel crossed an angular slope break and spread onto a horizontal tank floor. Flow development comprised: (i) channelized phase (unsteady channel flow developing into steady channel flow); (ii) initial lateral expansion phase (unsteady‐spreading wall jet phase); (iii) constant lateral expansion phase (steady‐spreading wall jet phase); and (iv) rapid waning phase. Phases (i) and (iv) are similar to laterally constrained turbidity currents, but phases (ii) and (iii) are considerably different from such two‐dimensional currents. Steeper channel slopes produced greater flow velocities and turbulence intensities, but these effects diminished markedly with distance from the channel mouth. Flow velocity vectors in the tank had similar patterns for all channel slopes, with a central core of faster velocity and narrow vector dispersion and slower flow with larger dispersion at the jet margins. Suspended sediment concentrations were higher within flow heads and dense basal layers in flow bodies. Time‐averaged acoustic backscatter data showed vertical concentration gradients, confirmed by siphon samples. The deposits comprised a thick central ridge, of similar order width to the channel mouth, with abrupt margins and a surrounding, very thin, fan‐like sheet. The ridge was coarser grained and better sorted than the original sediment, with grain‐size fining downstream, particularly over the fan‐like sheet. The formation of a central ridge suggests that, in the tank, vertical turbulent momentum exchange is more significant for sediment dynamics than spanwise momentum exchange due to lateral expansion. The streamwise elongate geometry of the ridge contrasts with conventional fan‐like geometry found with surge‐type turbidity flows, a result that has widespread stratigraphic and economic implications.     

弯道水流对下游回水响应特征试验研究

弯道水面横比降及断面环流是弯道水流的显著特性。通过U形弯道水流壅水试验,对弯道水面横向比降、横向流速分布、环流强度、紊动能及纵向流速沿程的变化进行了试验研究。结果显示,随着下游回水的抬高,弯道水面横比降、横向流速分布、环流强度、紊动能及纵向流速将发生明显的改变。为深入探讨下游回水对弯道水流结构的影响提供了科学依据。     

黄河上游玛曲草原湍流统计特征分析

湍流运动是大气最基本的运动特征,是大气能量物质交换的主要方式。利用玛曲气候与环境综合观测研究站2006年12月至2007年1月的湍流观测资料,分析了湍流方差特征、湍流动能及湍流强度等湍流统计特征,结果表明:无量纲化的风速脉动σu/u*,σv/u*,σw/u*与稳定度z/L符合1/3次方规律;大气处于中性层结时,在近中性条件下,无量纲化风速方差σu/u*,σv/u*,σw/u*分别趋于常数A=3.42,B=3.34,C=1.02;无因次化温度脉动方差σT/|T*|和湿度脉动方差σq/|q*|与稳定度z/L的变化都比较离散,基本上不能拟合出-1/3次方规律。湍流动能随风速增大而增大,白天比夜间明显,相比之下,夜间湍流动能较小,且随风速的增大比较缓慢;湍流动能随稳定的变化是非常明显的,在稳定度近中性时湍流动能取得最大值。湍流强度Iu,Iv,Iw随风速的增大而减小,当风速在0 m/s5 m/s时,湍流强度变化很小。     

Hazard assessment in rockfall-prone Himalayan slopes along National Highway-58, India: rating and simulation

A massive disaster occurred in June 2013 in Kedarnath, India, due to cloudburst and extremely heavy rain along the Chorabari glacier. The resulting flash floods further aggravated the instability of natural and hill cut slopes at different places on the downstream side. The village Rambara that existed in close proximity of Kedarnath was swept away under flow of debris and water. The immediate surrounding area, which housed over a hundred and fifty shops and hotels, was completely washed away leaving no trace of civilization. This calamity in Uttarakhand is considered as India’s worst natural disasters after the tsunami in December 2004. On the downstream of the affected areas lie other pilgrim destinations that witness innumerable footfalls every year. Investigation of the health of the slopes on the routes to these destinations is therefore very important to ensure minimal damage to humans and machinery. The Himalayan terrain is a tectonically active mountain belt, having a large number of unstable natural and road cut slopes. Such slopes with rugged topography lie in the high seismic vulnerability zone. Further, the instability is aggravated by natural and anthropogenic activities increasing at a rapid and uncontrollable rate. In the light of the Kedarnath tragedy, more advanced research is being conducted along the National Highways to monitor and prevent slope/structure failures. This study was conducted to evaluate the hazard potential along National Highway-58, near Saknidhar village of Devprayag district by analysing rockfall using hazard rating systems and numerical simulation. Rockfall hazard rating systems were applied to evaluate the conditions of the slopes and to identify the associated risks. Based on the field and laboratory analyses, the parameters required for numerical models were determined. The bounce height, roll-out distance, kinetic energy and speed of the detached blocks were determined by using a competent rockfall simulator. The results obtained were used to identify rockfall risk in the region. Optimization strategies were applied during investigation by modifying the slope angle, ditch width and ditch angle to assess the possibility of a hazard to occur in different scenarios. The simulation studies revealed that an increasing slope angle could significantly increase the kinetic energy of the rock blocks. However, an increase in the ditch angle and the ditch width reduces the energy of moving blocks. The maximum bounce height above the slope varied from 0.003 m to 0.8 m for 10-kg blocks, whereas the maximum velocity and the maximum kinetic energy under such circumstances were 7.882 m/s and 379.89 J, respectively. The barrier capacity was found to be 233.18 J for 10-kg falling blocks at a height of 10.02 m. From the optimization studies, it was found that the risk can be reduced by up to 13 % if the slope of 70° has a ditch angle of 15° while on a flat ditch, the maximum risk will be at an angle of 65°. If the ditch angle is increased, the vertical component of the falling blocks is more effective than that in case of a flat ditch. These optimization studies lay foundation for advanced research for mitigation of rockfall hazards in similar potential areas.

     

Global spectra of energy and enstrophy and their fluxes during July 1979

Transient and stationary spectra of kinetic energy (KE), available potential energy (APE) and enstrophy (EN), and their spectral fluxes as a function of the two-dimensional wavenumbern were computed for July 1979. Triangular truncation at zonal wavenumber 42 was used for computation. The slopes of various spectra in the wavenumber range 14≤n≤25 were obtained by fitting a straight line in log-log scale by the least square method. The transientKE, APE andEN spectra in the lower (upper) troposphere had slopes −2·21 (−2·30), −2·65 (−2·64) and −0·36 (−0·46), respectively. The effect of stationary and divergent motion on the slope values was investigated. The possible correlation between the slope and percentage of transient component in the combined energy and enstrophy was examined to identify the transient motion of the atmosphere with the two-dimensional homogeneous isotropic turbulence. The vertically averaged slope of kinetic energy and enstrophy in the lower (upper) troposphere was close to the value at 700 (200) hPa level. The spectral fluxes of kinetic energy and enstrophy in the wavenumber range 14≤n≤25 satisfied, to a very rough approximation, the criteria of inertial subrange. The stationary fluxes were small. The estimated stationary-transient component of flux was larger, comparable and less than the corresponding transient flux of APE, KE and EN. Representative levels for computation of energy and enstrophy spectra and their fluxes in the lower and upper troposphere were identified.     

Carbonate platform flanks: slope angle and sediment fabric

More than 20 examples of fossil carbonate platform systems were compared for slope angle and sediment fabric. Plots of slope angle versus sediment fabric show that grainy, non-cohesive, mud-free sediments build steeper slopes than muddy, cohesive, sediments. Examples near the end-members of grainy and muddy carbonate platform flanks are found in the Triassic of the Dolomites in northern Italy and in the Bahamas, respectively. They document the flank geometry and the processes readjusting the slope profile once the limiting slope angle is exceeded. The grainy flank sediments in the Dolomites, modified by shearing and avalanching, produce straight slope profiles with declivities up to 35°, whereas the muddy Bahamian flank sediments, modified by large-scale creep and rotational to translational sliding and slumping, produce a concave-upwards slope profile, inclined at less than 4°. The comparison between slope angle and sediment fabric indicates that the physical behaviour of sediments in the gravity field, angle of shearing and mode of readjustment processes, is linked to the composition of the slope sediment. Among the variables such as sea-level, subsidence, climate, plate motion and oceanographic setting (windward-leeward), sediment fabric is suggested to be a major, if not the major control on slope angle and slope curvature of carbonate platform flanks. Besides the recently documented tendency of carbonate sediments to build steeper slopes than siliciclastics, this proposed relation sheds new light on the analysis and quantification of the variables influencing the geometry and depositional evolution of carbonate systems. Furthermore, it provides an opportunity to deduce sediment composition from seismic lines and predict lithology prior to drilling.     

An experimental study on controlling post-earthquake debris flows using slit dams

Post-earthquake debris flows often break out in groups frequently, which are usually caused by the abundant loose solid materials that produced by earthquake. Slit dams represent a practical and effective kind of countermeasure for controlling the post-earthquake debris flow. Flume experiments were carried out to study the interaction mechanism and the effect of slit dams on the post-earthquake debris flows. The results showed that affected by the slit dams, some certain types of deposits formed on the upstream. The steeper the flume slope, as well as the greater the width and the density of slits, the easier the lateral deposit became “V” shaped. Otherwise, the lateral deposit was more likely to be “–?” shaped. When the flume slopes were 12°, 16° and 20°, the profiles of the deposits would be long-shallow type, short-thick type and short-shallow type, respectively. The slope of the deposition first decreases and then increases with the flume slope increasing within a certain range. The slit dam can trap the coarse sand and discharge the fine sand. The maximum attenuation rate can reach 44.4%. The effect of this capacity gradually weakens as the flume slope is increased. When the width or the density of slits is smaller, the greater the rate of decrease in peak sand discharge and the greater the effect of peak cutting will be. The reduction in the sediment storage rate is likely due to the increase in the width and the density of the slits. With the increase in flume slope, the sediment storage rate first increases, then decreases, which reaches a maximum value when the flume slope is 16°.     

The relative importance of soil crust and slope angle in runoff and soil loss: a case study in the hilly areas of the Loess Plateau, North China

Soil crust and slope angle are of important factors affecting runoff production and sediment yield. In the hilly areas of the Loess Plateau, North China, slope lands are distributed extensively and subjected to soil crusting; therefore, the research on the responses of runoff and soil loss to soil crust and slope angle is essential to soil and water conservation. In the study, five pairs of 1 m × 5 m plots with slope angles of 5°, 10°, 15°, 20° and 25° respectively, were established in Wangjiagou watershed, which was located at the Loess Plateau, China. Based on the two simulated rainfall events, uncrusted surface prior to the first simulated rainfall event, and crusted surface prior to the second rainfall event were distinguished. The runoff production and soil loss were measured at intervals of 5 min during the simulated events. It indicated that both soil crust and slope angle played an important role in runoff production and soil loss. With the reference slope angle of 5°, the relative importance of soil crust and slope angle in runoff production was calculated. It showed that soil crust effect on the total runoff volume decreased from 100 to ～40%, while slope angle effect increased from 0 to ～60% with increasing slope angle because soil crust less developed on the steeper slopes. Furthermore, soil crust effect was associated with rainfall duration. At the same slope angle, the relative importance of soil crust decreased with rainfall duration because new crust was formed on the uncrusted surface. The critical slope of erosion was also discussed. Soil loss increased with slope angle when the slope angle was less than 20°. Generally speaking, soil crust effect decreased with slope angle and/or rainfall duration.     

宽窄相间河道水流紊动特性试验研究

为了探索宽窄相间河道的水流紊动特性,以西南地区宝兴河上游宽窄相间河段为研究对象,基于室内概化模型试验,采用多普勒声学流速仪(ADV)测量了室内模型典型断面上的三维瞬时流速,分析典型断面上的纵向时均流速、紊动强度、雷诺切应力和紊动能的分布规律。试验结果显示:宽窄相间水槽中,扩散段边壁的紊动强度大于中心区域的紊动强度,最大值位于0.2倍水深处;扩散段两侧坡脚处紊动能最大;侧壁区的平面和立面雷诺切应力最大值出现在扩散段内,中心区域最大雷诺切应力位于两槽间的中间断面处;扩散段内水流紊乱,两侧出现旋涡和涡脱,易造成侧壁侵蚀加强,引起河道拓宽。深入分析了宽窄相间河道水流的紊动特性,可为山区河流治理和自然灾害防治提供参考。     

基于多松弛格子玻尔兹曼的弯道水流三维数值模拟

为研究弯道水流现象并且拓展格子玻尔兹曼(Lattice Boltzmann Method,LBM)在水利工程领域的应用,建立了弯道水流的三维多松弛LBM演进模型,其中包括水流自由表面模拟、弯曲固壁边界处理以及紊流模型耦合求解等关键技术。应用该模型模拟研究了不同流量下U型弯道的水流状态,得到了水位、最大水深平均流速以及紊动能等参数的分布规律。分析和实践表明,该模型能较好地模拟三维弯道水流现象。     

宽窄相间河道水流紊动特性试验研究

为了探索宽窄相间河道的水流紊动特性，以西南地区宝兴河上游宽窄相间河段为研究对象，基于室内概化模型试验，采用多普勒声学流速仪（ADV）测量了室内模型典型断面上的三维瞬时流速，分析典型断面上的纵向时均流速、紊动强度、雷诺切应力和紊动能的分布规律。试验结果显示：宽窄相间水槽中，扩散段边壁的紊动强度大于中心区域的紊动强度，最大值位于0.2倍水深处；扩散段两侧坡脚处紊动能最大；侧壁区的平面和立面雷诺切应力最大值出现在扩散段内，中心区域最大雷诺切应力位于两槽间的中间断面处；扩散段内水流紊乱，两侧出现旋涡和涡脱，易造成侧壁侵蚀加强，引起河道拓宽。深入分析了宽窄相间河道水流的紊动特性，可为山区河流治理和自然灾害防治提供参考。     

The vertical turbulence structure of experimental turbidity currents encountering basal obstructions: implications for vertical suspended sediment distribution in non‐equilibrium currents

Large roughness features, caused by erosion of the sea floor, are commonly observed on the modern sea floor and beneath turbidite sandstone beds in outcrop. This paper aims to investigate the effect of such roughness elements on the turbulent velocity field and its consequences for the sediment carrying capacity of the flows. Experimental turbidity currents were run through a rectangular channel, with a single roughness element fixed to the bottom in some runs. The effect of this roughness element on the turbulent velocity field was determined by measuring vertical profiles of the vertical velocity component in the region downstream of the basal obstruction with the Ultrasonic Doppler Velocity Profiling technique. The experiments were set up to answer two research questions. (i) How does a single roughness element alter the distribution of vertical turbulence intensity? (ii) How does the altered profile evolve in the downstream direction? The results for runs over a plane substrate are similar to data presented previously and show a lower turbulence maximum near the channel floor, a turbulence minimum associated with the velocity maximum, and a turbulence maximum associated with the upper flow interface. In the runs in which the flows were perturbed by the single roughness element, the intensity of the lower turbulence maximum was increased between 41% to 81%. This excess turbulence dissipated upwards in the flow while it travelled further downstream, but was still observable at the most distal measurement location (at a distance ca 39 times the roughness height downstream of the element). All results point towards a similarity between the near bed turbulence structure of turbidity currents and free surface shear flows that has been proposed by previous authors, and this proposition is supported further by the apparent success of a shear velocity estimation method that is based on this similarity. Theory of turbulent dispersal of suspended sediment is used to discuss how the observed turbulent effects of a single large roughness element may impact on the suspended sediment distribution in real world turbidity currents. It is concluded that this impact may consist of a non‐equilibrium net‐upwards transport of suspended sediment, counteracting density stratification. Thus, erosive substrate topography created by frontal parts of natural turbidity flows may super‐elevate sediment concentrations in upper regions above equilibrium values in following flow stages, delay depletion of the flow via sedimentation and increase their run‐out distance.     

Features of cross-stratified units due to random and other changes in bed forms

Because cross-stratified units depend upon the movement of bed forms, any change in the shape, size and direction of travel of the forms is reflected in the geometry of the units, notably in their relative length, breadth and thickness, mode of termination upstream and downstream, and internal discontinuities. Most models of cross-stratification so far published are unsatisfactory because they ignore the fact that real bed forms are subject to change. The changes are thought to occur at two levels of detail independently. Those at the coarser level depend on the essential non-uniformity, unsteadiness and multi-directionality of natural flows, when assessed on a suitably large scale. At the finer level, change is related to the random behaviour of individual bed forms as they interact with the adjacent flow, and it proceeds even when the flow is an equilibrium one overall. Flume experiments on current ripples show that many features of cross-stratified units can be explained by the random behaviour of bed forms. The finite streamwise length of such units, and their upstream and downstream erosional termination, is governed by the life-span (finite) of individual ripples and by the extent of net deposition on the bed. Internal discontinuities, closely resembling features described as reactivation structures, were also found to depend on the relative motion of ripples, no change of flow discharge and stage being involved. The degree of relative motion in the ripple assemblages was substantial, as measured by the fluctuating component of the ripple celerity.     

基于高速摄像技术的推移质运动特征试验

在明渠中开展不同水流条件下低强度均匀沙平衡输沙试验,基于灰度相减方法分析整个床面推移质运动特征,以探寻紊流结构与推移质运动之间的作用机理。结果表明:①受水槽横向方向水流强度分布特征影响,推移质运动概率从水槽中线到两侧壁逐渐变小,且基本呈对称分布;②在紊流相干结构作用下,推移质床面在紊流低速条带区形成凸槽,高速条带区形成凹槽,推移质运动概率沿水槽横向方向存在高低相间的带状分区;③随摩阻雷诺数增大,相邻两推移质运动高概率区域的间距值变化范围为0.13~0.24倍水槽宽度,其值随摩阻雷诺数增大而增大;④不同水流条件下,推移质运动高概率区域间距值约为水深的2倍,这与流向涡模型吻合,表明流向涡是诱导床面出现凹凸相间形态的重要因素。     

The dynamics of turbulent, transitional and laminar clay-laden flow over a fixed current ripple

Most aqueous sedimentary environments contain varying concentrations of fine‐grained, often clay‐rich, sediment that is transported in suspension and may modify the properties of the flow and underlying mobile bed. This paper presents results from a series of laboratory experiments examining the mean and turbulent properties of clay‐laden (kaolinite) flows, of various volumetric sediment concentrations between 0·046% and 12·7%, moving over a fixed, idealized current ripple. As the kaolinite concentration was raised, with flow velocity and depth constant, four flow types were observed to occur: (i) turbulent flow, in which flow separation is dominant in the leeside of the ripple; (ii) turbulence‐enhanced transitional flow, in which turbulence in the leeside separation zone region is enhanced; (iii) turbulence‐attenuated transitional flow, in which turbulence along the separation zone shear layer and in the free flow above it becomes damped, eventually leading to a reduction in the size of the separation zone wake region; and (iv) laminar plug flow, in which turbulence is damped and flow is almost stagnant in the lee of the ripple. Such modulation of turbulence by increasing clay concentrations suggests that many paradigms of flow and bedform dynamics, which have been based on extensive past work in clear water flows, require revision. The present results highlight a need to fully characterize the boundary conditions for turbulence modulation as a function of clay type and applied flow conditions, and the effects of such flows on fully mobile cohesionless beds.     

The stratigraphic record and processes of turbidity current transformation across deep‐marine lobes

Sedimentary facies in the distal parts of deep‐marine lobes can diverge significantly from those predicted by classical turbidite models, and sedimentological processes in these environments are poorly understood. This gap may be bridged using outcrop studies and theoretical models. In the Skoorsteenberg Formation (South Africa), a downstream transition from thickly bedded turbidite sandstones to argillaceous, internally layered hybrid beds, is observed. The hybrid beds have a characteristic stratigraphic and spatial distribution, being associated with bed successions which generally coarsen and thicken‐upward reflecting deposition on the fringes of lobes in a dominantly progradational system. Using a detailed characterization of bed types, including grain size, grain‐fabric and mineralogical analyses, a process‐model for flow evolution is developed. This is explored using a numerical suspension capacity model for radially spreading and decelerating turbidity currents. The new model shows how decelerating sediment suspensions can reach a critical suspension capacity threshold beyond which grains are not supported by fluid turbulence. Sand and silt particles, settling together with flocculated clay, may form low yield strength cohesive flows; development of these higher concentration lower boundary layer flows inhibits transfer of turbulent kinetic energy into the upper parts of the flow ultimately resulting in catastrophic loss of turbulence and collapse of the upper part of the flow. Advection distances of the now transitional to laminar flow are relatively long (several kilometres) suggesting relatively slow dewatering (several hours) of the low yield strength flows. The catastrophic loss of turbulence accounts for the presence of such beds in other fine‐grained systems without invoking external controls or large‐scale flow partitioning and also explains the abrupt pinch‐out of all divisions of these sandstones. Estimation of the point of flow transformation is a useful tool in the prediction of heterogeneity distribution in subsurface systems.     

Controlled blasting in an open-pit mine for improved slope stability

Summary A case study is presented where a controlled blasting programme (presplitting) was adopted in an open-pit copper mine in order to improve the stability of the resulting cut slopes. The aim was to reduce over break and minimize damage to the final pit walls from production blasts. The use of presplitting allowed considerably higher benches to be adopted with much steeper overall slope angles. The extra cost of presplitting was fully justified by the improved face stability and the resulting reduction in overburden quantity.     

The impact of large-scale turbulence on the redistribution of angular momentum in stellar accretion disks

We consider the origin and development of large-scale turbulence in a shear flow in a stellar accretion disk. The ratio of the kinetic energy of vortices originating in the turbulent flow and the total initial kinetic energy of the rotating disk is essentially constant. The large-scale structures that form are able to redistribute the angular momentum without any appreciable heating of the matter.     

A field study of turbulence and sediment dynamics over subaqueous dunes with flow separation

This study examines flow, turbulence and sand suspension over large dunes in Canoe Pass, a distributary channel of the Fraser River delta, Canada. Dune morphology is characterized by a symmetrical shape and steep leeside slopes over 30°. Velocity was measured with an electromagnetic current meter and suspended sand concentration with four optical backscatter (OBS) probes. The general patterns of time-averaged velocity and sand suspension are consistent with previous studies, including an increase in mean velocity and decrease in turbulence intensity and sand concentration with height above the bed, reversed flow with high turbulence intensity and high sand concentrations in the leeside flow separation zone and an increase in near-bed velocity and sand concentration along the stoss side of the dune. Frequency spectra of near-bed velocity and OBS records from leeside separation zones are composed of two distinct frequencies, providing field confirmation of scale relations based on flume experiments. The low-frequency spectral signal probably results from wake flapping and the high-frequency signal from vortex shedding. The wake-flapping frequency predominates outside the separation zone and is linked to turbulent structures that suspend sand. Predictions from a depth-scale Strouhal Law show good agreement with measured wake-flapping frequencies. Cross-correlations of OBS records reveal that turbulent sand suspension structures advect downstream at 23–25° above the horizontal. These advection angles are similar to coherent flow structures measured in flumes and to sand suspension structures visualized over large dunes in the field.     

苦草对水流结构的影响研究

为研究沉水植被对水流结构的影响,以苦草为对象,利用实验室水槽实验研究了含淹没水生植被水流时均流速、雷诺应力及紊动能的垂向分布特征。受苦草冠层的影响,时均流速在冠顶以上呈对数分布,且随着流量的增加,冠层倾伏高度降低,对数剖面愈加明显;冠层内部,由于冠层阻流面积在垂向分布上的差异,冠层内时均流速出现逆梯度分布,且在床面附近出现局部流速最大值。雷诺应力在冠顶附近达到最大值,并向水面与床底方向逐渐减小;受逆流速梯度的影响,冠层内部雷诺应力出现负值以及局部最大值。雷诺应力产生的剪切紊动使得紊动能在冠顶处最大,并向水面与床底进行垂向传输;受紊动传输距离的限制,冠层底部以叶片后产生的尾流紊动为主,紊动能较小。