2001～2010年中国区域土地利用/覆盖变化对陆面过程影响的模拟研究

基于2001年和2010年中分辨率成像光谱仪MODIS（MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）土地覆盖数据,利用公共陆面模式（Community Land Model, CLM）模拟真实的土地利用/覆盖变化（Land Use/Cover Change, LUCC）对地表能量平衡和水分循环过程的影响。研究表明:1）在2001～2010年,中国LUCC最明显的区域位于干旱半干旱区过渡带、半干旱半湿润区过渡带和南方地区;中国区域荒漠减少0.92%,草地减少0.01%,农田增加0.77%,森林增加2.86%,植被覆盖度整体增加。2）在2001年和2010年两种土地利用/覆盖背景下,LUCC使大部分地区感热通量增加,植被蒸腾、蒸发潜热通量增加,土壤表面蒸发潜热通量减小。3）LUCC使大部分地区地表径流减小;中国西北东部、华北和东北地区土壤湿度减小,其他地区土壤湿度增加,仅干旱半干旱过渡带上的土壤湿度发生了显著变化。4）当典型过渡带区域由荒漠变为草地后,感热通量增加1.11 W m?2,潜热通量增加0.14 W m?2;冠层蒸腾和蒸发分别增加0.039 mm d?1、0.009 mm d?1。土壤湿度平均减小0.01 m3 m?3,且随深度增加变干更明显,这是由于根系吸收了较多深层土壤水分,以满足植被显著增加的蒸腾而产生的结果。当草地变为灌木时,其能量通量和水分循环的变化与上述结果类似。     

CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETATION COVER, ROUGHNESS AND ALBEDO DISTRIBUTION OVER CHINA*

To build land surface dataset for climate model,with application of remote sensing technique as well as the Geographic Information System(GIS),the data of surface type,roughness and albedo over China in 1997 were retrieved,resolutions being 10 km×10 km.Based on these data,an analysis is conducted on the geographic distributions and seasonal variations of surface vegetation cover and roughness as well as albedo over China.Results show that surface vegetation cover is mainly located to the south of Yangtze River,in Southwest and Northeast China andsparse vegetation cover is in the Northwest.The variation of land surface cover affects the variations of land surface roughness and albedo.High albedo occurred in the north of Xinjiang Autonomous Region,the north of Northeast China and the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in winter,in correspondence with the location of snow cover.For most part of China,surface roughness decreases and albedo increases in winter,while the roughness increases and the albedo decreases in summer,which could mainly result from land surface cover(snow cover and vegetation cover)and soil moisture changes.This shows that the geographic distribution and seasonal variation of the albedo are almost opposite to those of the roughness,in agreement with theoretical results.Temporally,the amplitude of surface roughness change is quite small in comparison with the roughness itself.     

近20年中国土地利用变化影响区域气候的数值模拟

区域尺度土地利用/土地覆盖变化(LUCC)的气候效应以及土地覆盖数据的不确定性, 一直是LUCC研究不可忽视的关键问题。本研究基于最新的遥感资料, 采用新的区域气候模式RegCM4.0, 探讨了1990年至2010年中国LUCC对区域气候的影响。结果表明, 中国区域LUCC使得局地气温和日较差发生了显著改变, 而降水及低层环流场变化不显著;LUCC的影响存在季节性差异, 其中, 夏秋季响应程度较大且主要体现在边界层内。就LUCC对气候影响的机理各地区有所不同, 华北地区LUCC的气候效应主要受蒸散发作用主导, 而长江流域则由反照率与蒸散发共同作用。这些结果均说明, 较短时间尺度的LUCC气候效应主要体现在其局地范围, 且在不同的季节有所差异。     

近50年我国西部地区气象要素的变化特征

利用1951-2000年全国194站地面观测资料和高空观测资料,对近50年我国西部地区的气候变化特征进行分析。结果表明:从20世纪70年代开始,我国西部地区年平均气温呈上升趋势,其中河套区和新疆区气温上升最为明显,其次为青藏高原区和河西区,西南区气温增幅最不明显,地表温度变化与气温的变化基本同步,但地温变化要比气温变化更加剧烈一些。西南区的地温从70年代中期开始回升,但始终未达到50年代初期的水平,因此从线性变化上表现为下降趋势。西部地区除了河套区外,其他4个区的年平均降水量均增加,增加最明显的是新疆区和青藏高原区。我国整个西部地区年平均总云量和低云量均呈线性减少趋势,减少最明显的是西南区和河套区。在辐射变化上,我国西部总辐射呈减少趋势,青藏高原区减少最多;西南区的散射辐射呈增加趋势,其他4个区减少,其中新疆区和青藏高原区散射辐射减幅明显。散射辐射的大小与天空中云量和气溶胶含量的多少成正比,西南区散射辐射呈增加趋势,而总云量和低云量呈下降趋势,可以推测是气溶胶含量增加导致了散射辐射的增加。     

利用MODIS卫星资料反演中国地区晴空地表短波反照率及其特征分析

利用MODIS地表双向反照率产品(MOD43B1),结合地表海拔高度和地表覆盖类型资料,计算并分析了中国地区晴空反照率的时空分布,以及地表反照率与地形和地表覆盖的关系.首先,利用改则自动气象站的地基观测对MODIS地表反照率进行了对比验证.验证结果表明卫星观测可以较好地反映反照率随时间的变化,MODIS地表反照率与地表实测反照率符合较好.年平均地表反照率与海拔高度有很好的相关,反照率的高值出现在高海拔山区.冬春季节,我国高海拔山区因积雪覆盖成为反照率的高值区;夏秋季节,地表反照率主要受地表土壤湿度和植被盖度的影响,沙地和沙漠地带反照率最高.最后,计算了中国典型地表类型的反照率随时间的变化,结果表明大部分地表类型的反照率具有较大的时间变化,地表反照率在春秋季节较大,夏季反照率较小.     

Effects of Updated RegCM4 Land Use Data on Near-Surface Temperature Simulation in China

Biogeophysical effects of land use and land cover (LULC) changes play a significant role in modulating climate on various spatial scales. In this study, a set of recent LULC products with a spatial resolution of 500 m was developed in China for update in RegCM4 (regional climate model version 4). Two sets of comparative numerical experiments were conducted to study the effects of LULC changes on near-surface temperature simulation. The results show that after LULC changes, areas of crops and mixed woodlands as well as urban areas increase over entire China, accompanied with greatly expanded mixed farming and forests/field mosaics in southern China, and reduced areas of 1) irrigated crops and short grasses in northern China and the Tibetan Plateau, and 2) semi-desert and desert in northwestern China. Improvements in the LULC data clearly result in more accurate simulations of the near-surface temperature. Specifically, increasing latent heat and longwave albedo due to enhanced LULC in certain areas lead to reduction in land surface temperature (LST), while changes in shortwave albedo and sensible heat also exert a great influence on the LST. Overall, these parameter adjustments reduce the biases in near-surface temperature simulation.     

中国区域夏季地表气温与陆面过程耦合强度的分布特征

鉴于陆气相互作用对极端高温事件的重要作用,利用ERA5-Land陆面再分析资料,分析了基于敏感度的中国区域夏季地表气温与土壤湿度、土壤温度耦合强度的多时间尺度分布特征。研究结果表明,基于不同耦合过程指标定义的陆气耦合强度在中国区域呈不同的空间分布特征,其中基于潜热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域主要分布在中国的西北地区和长江流域,基于感热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域则主要分布在河套—内蒙古地区、新疆西南部地区,以及长江以南部分区域。这说明夏季地表气温对陆面变量异常的敏感度的区域差异,与不同区域陆面异常影响地表气温的主导过程密切相关。此外,陆气耦合强度的强弱还随时间尺度而变化,其中月—季节尺度的陆气耦合强度要明显弱于日、候及旬尺度的耦合强度;就日、候及旬时间尺度而言,基于潜热交换过程的陆面变量—地表气温的耦合强度在全国大部分地区随时间尺度的增加而减弱,基于感热通量的陆气耦合强度在南方大部分地区也随时间尺度的增加逐渐减弱,但在北方大部分地区则表现为随时间尺度增加逐渐增强。相比较于表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度,次表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度在中国西北地区明显减弱。     

Simulation of desert-scrub growth: A forcing to warmer and more pluvial climate

Desert-fringe vegetation growing over bright, sandy soils reduces the surface albedo from above 0.4 to well be-low 0.3. Called desert-scrub, these shrubs form a predominantly vertical clumps protruding from the soil-level, thereby significantly increasing the coefficient of turbulent heat transfer from the surface. The impact on global and desert-belt climate of changes in these two surface characteristics was simulated by a multi-layer energy balance model. Evaluated only as a forcing to a further climatic change (that is, without accounting for any possible feedbacks) the results are: if vegetation (such as apparently existed under the warmer climate of 6,000 BP) grows over large areas in the arid, currently bare-soil regions, the annual Northern Hemisphere surface temperature increases by 0.7oC (by 0.6oC in July ), the surface temperature over land in the 20-30oN zone increases by 0.9oC in both the annual and the July means, and the land-ocean annual temperature contrast in this zone increases by 0.25oC (0.2oC in July). These results represent the combined influence of the reduction in the surface albedo and of the increase in the coefficient of turbulent heat transfer. In the desert-belt zones, the increase in the transfer coefficient sharply reduces the land temperature and the land-ocean temperature contrast from the values produced by the albedo change alone. This reduction must be attributed to the increased land-to-ocean circulation (which our model does not evaluate ex-plicitly). Considering that a stronger circulation (resulting from land-ocean temperature contrast) generally forces a higher rainfall, the vegetation which emerged in the arid regions during the post-glacial optimum should be consid-ered a. significant positive feedback towards a still warmer, and also a more pluvial, climate. Our study may have im-plications for the 21st century, if the global warming expected from the enhanced greenhouse effects is accompanied by increased precipitation over the continents.     

Can crop albedo be increased through the modification of leaf trichomes,and could this cool regional climate?

Managing the land surface to increase albedo to offset regional warming has received less attention than managing the land surface to sequester carbon. We test whether increasing agricultural albedo can cool regional climate. We first used the Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0) coupled to the Community Land Model (CLM 3.0) to assess the broad climatic effects of a hypothetical implementation of a strategy in which the albedo of cropland regions is increased using high albedo crops. Simulations indicate that planting brighter crops can decrease summertime maximum daily 2 m air temperature by 0.25°C per 0.01 increase in surface albedo at high latitudes (>30°). However, planting brighter crops at low latitudes (<30°) may have negative repercussions including warming the land surface and decreasing precipitation, because increasing the land surface albedo tends to preferentially decrease latent heat fluxes to the atmosphere, which decreases cloud cover and rainfall. We then test a possible method for increasing crop albedo by measuring the range of albedo within 16 isolines of soybeans that differ only with trichome color, orientation, and density but find that such modifications had only minor impacts on leaf albedo. Increasing agricultural albedo may cool high latitude regional climate, but increasing plant albedo sufficiently to offset potential future warming will require larger changes to plant albedo than are currently available.     

近30年来中国干旱生态区增暖放大现象及其与植被覆盖的联系

利用归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）将中国划分为不同的生态区,在此基础上分析夏季植被状况与不同生态区增暖之间的联系。研究表明,就多年平均而言,中国植被覆盖呈现自东向西逐渐减少的空间分布。1982年以来,植被稀疏的干旱生态区是夏季增暖最明显的区域,平均气温和平均最高气温增速大都位于0.6~1.0℃/10 a,而平均最低气温的升高达到0.8~1.4℃/10 a,明显高于中国其他区域。进一步分析发现,夏季气温的变化与其所处地区的植被疏密程度之间存在很好的负相关关系,即快速增暖主要发生在植被稀疏区,且这种负相关关系在夏季平均最低气温上最为显著。不同植被覆盖区中气温的长期变化趋势,受NDVI变化带来的地表反照率和云量变化的影响,但各生态区不尽相同,主要表现在:植被稀疏的干旱生态区,植被减少,引起地表反照率增加,感热输送增加而潜热输送减小,加速了该地区整体的增温速率;而在植被茂密地区,植被增加造成地表反照率减少,同时由于蒸发冷却,其整体增暖幅度缓于植被稀疏区。所以,植被活动对全球变暖背景下的区域气候变化具有重要作用,尤其表现在干旱生态区的陆面过程上,地表辐射平衡和能量收支的显著改变放大了干旱生态区的增暖速率。     

The biogeophysical effects of extreme afforestation in modeling future climate

Afforestation has been deployed as a mitigation strategy for global warming due to its substantial carbon sequestration, which is partly counterbalanced with its biogeophysical effects through modifying the fluxes of energy, water, and momentum at the land surface. To assess the potential biophysical effects of afforestation, a set of extreme experiments in an Earth system model of intermediate complexity, the McGill Paleoclimate Model-2 (MPM-2), is designed. Model results show that latitudinal afforestation not only has a local warming effect but also induces global and remote warming over regions beyond the forcing originating areas. Precipitation increases in the northern hemisphere and decreases in southern hemisphere in response to afforestation. The local surface warming over the forcing originating areas in northern hemisphere is driven by decreases in surface albedo and increases in precipitation. The remote surface warming in southern hemisphere is induced by decreases in surface albedo and precipitation. The results suggest that the potential impact of afforestation on regional and global climate depended critically on the location of the forest expansion. That is, afforestation in 0°–15°N leaves a relatively minor impact on global and regional temperature; afforestation in 45°–60°N results in a significant global warming, while afforestation in 30°–45°N results in a prominent regional warming. In addition, the afforestation leads to a decrease in annual mean meridional oceanic heat transport with a maximum decrease in forest expansion of 30°–45°N. These results can help to compare afforestation effects and find areas where afforestation mitigates climate change most effectively combined with its carbon drawdown effects.     

Greening the terrestrial biosphere: simulated feedbacks on atmospheric heat and energy circulation

Much research focuses on how the terrestrial biosphere influences climate through changes in surface albedo (reflectivity), stomatal conductance and leaf area index (LAI). By using a fully-coupled GCM (HadCM3LC), our research objective was to induce an increase in the growth of global vegetation to isolate the effect of increased LAI on atmospheric exchange of heat and moisture. Our Control simulation had a mean global net primary production (NPP) of 56.3 GtCyr^?1 which is half that of our scenario value of 115.1 GtCyr^?1. LAI and latent energy (Q _E) were simulated to increase globally, except in areas around Antarctica. A highly productive biosphere promotes mid-latitude mean surface cooling of ~2.5°C in the summer, and surface warming of ~1.0°C in the winter. The former response is primarily the result of reduced Bowen ratio (i.e. increased production of Q _E) in combination with small increases in planetary albedo. Response in winter temperature is likely due to decreased planetary albedo that in turn permits a greater amount of solar radiation to reach the Earth’s surface. Energy balance calculations show that between 75° and 90°N latitude, an additional 2.4 Wm^?2 of surface heat must be advected into the region to maintain energy balance, and ultimately causes high northern latitudes to warm by up to 3°C. We postulate that large increases in Q _E promoted by increased growth of terrestrial vegetation could contribute to greater surface-to-atmosphere exchange and convection. Our high growth simulation shows that convective rainfall substantially increases across three latitudinal bands relative to Control; in the tropics, across the monsoonal belt, and in mid-latitude temperate regions. Our theoretical research has implications for applied climatology; in the modeling of past “hot-house” climates, in explaining the greening of northern latitudes in modern-day times, and for predicting future changes in surface temperature with continued increases in atmospheric CO₂.     

基于MODIS数据地表反照率时空变化特征及影响因子研究

地表反照率表征地球表面对太阳辐射的反射能力,是影响地表辐射能量收支平衡的关键参数。本文以淮河流域为例,利用MODIS（MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）数据,采用网格趋势分析、异常变化分析、相关分析和灰色关联度分析等方法,分析了淮河流域2005～2015年地表反照率的时空变化规律,以及土地利用类型、地形因子、地表参数和气候等影响因子。结果表明:淮河流域年平均地表反照率整体呈“北高南低、东高西低”的空间分布规律,变化在0.043～0.223,平均值为 0.145。低值区主要集中于水体密集和山区丘陵地带,且标准差相对较小;高值区主要集中于流域中部及东部平原地带,且标准差较大。61.5%的区域地表反照率呈增加趋势,且存在季节性差异,夏季平均地表反照率最大,春季次之,秋季最小,冬季则由于降雪覆盖和农田利用的影响波动幅度较大。淮河流域地表反照率与归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）、地表温度、气温和降水在大部分区域呈正相关,面积占比分别达到90.23%、82.32%、85.41%和93.70%。灰色关联度分析表明,不同土地利用类型（水体除外）下年均地表反照率受各因子影响排序为:NDVI>气温>地表温度>降水,空间变化受各因子影响排序为:NDVI>降水>地表温度>气温>高程。     

Impact of Anthropogenic Heat Release on Regional Climate in Three Vast Urban Agglomerations in China简

We simulated the impact of anthropogenic heat release （AHR） on the regional climate in three vast city agglomerations in China using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with nested high-resolution modeling.Based on energy consumption and high-quality land use data,we designed two scenarios to represent no-AHR and current-AHR conditions.By comparing the results of the two numerical experiments,changes of surface air temperature and precipitation due to AHR were quantified and analyzed.We concluded that AHR increases the temperature in these urbanized areas by about 0.5℃-1℃,and this increase is more pronounced in winter than in other seasons.The inclusion of AHR enhances the convergence of water vapor over urbanized areas.Together with the warming of the lower troposphere and the enhancement of ascending motions caused by AHR,the average convective available potential energy in urbanized areas is increased.Rainfall amounts in summer over urbanized areas are likely to increase and regional precipitation patterns to be altered to some extent.     

Significant Variations of Surface Albedo during a Snowy Period at Xianghe Observatory, China

Surface albedo over typical types of surfaces in the North China Plain was observed using a Multi-field Albedo Observation System before and after several snowfalls from 13 to 27 February 2005.Dramatic variations of the surface albedos of bare land,a frozen pond,and withered grassland during that period were analyzed.Under cloudy sky,the mean surface albedo of bare land was about 0.23,but it immediately rose to 0.85 when the surface was covered by fresh snow.The albedo decreased gradually to normal levels a...     

Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Clear-Sky Land Surface Temperature of Several Representative Land Surface Types in China Retrieved by GMS-5

The retrieved results in this paper by GMS-5/VISSR thermal infrared data with single time/dual channel Split-Window Algorithm reveal the characteristics of diurnal and seasonal variation of clear-sky land surface temperature (LST) of several representative land surface types in China,including Tarim Basin,Qinghai- Tibetan Plateau,Hunshandake Sands,North China Plain,and South China.The seasonal variation of clear-sky LST in above areas varies distinctly for the different surface albedo,soil water content,and the extent of influence by solar radiation.The monthly average diurnal ranges of LST have two peaks and two valleys in one year.The characteristics of LST in most land of East Asia and that of sea surface temperature (SST) in the south of Taiwan Strait and the Yellow Sea are also analyzed as comparison.Tarim Basin and Hunshandake Sands have not only considerable LST diurnal cycle but also remarkable seasonal variation. In 2000,the maximum monthly average diurnal ranges of LST in both areas are over 30 K,and the annual range in Hunshadake Sands reaches 58.50 K.Seasonal variation of LST in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is less than those in East Asia,Tarim Basin,and Hunshandake Sands.However,the maximum diurnal range exists in this area.The yearly average diurnal range is 28.05 K in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in 2000.The characteristics of diurnal,seasonal,and annual variation from 1998 to 2000 are also shown in this research. All the results will be valuable to the research of climate change,radiation balance,and estimation for the change of land surface types.     

GMS 5反演中国几类典型下垫面晴空地表温度的日变化及季节变化

文中利用单时相双光谱分裂窗算法以GMS 5/VISSR红外资料反演地表温度,揭示了中国几类典型下垫面晴空地表温度的日变化及季节变化特征.塔里木盆地、青藏高原、浑善达克沙地、华北平原北部、华南部分地区因地表反射率、土壤含水量、受太阳辐射影响程度不同等地表温度季节变化差异很大,月平均地表温度日较差一年内基本上呈双峰双谷型.作为比较,东亚部分陆地的地表温度与台湾海峡南部、黄海的海表温度及其日变化、季节变化一并进行了分析.塔里木盆地、浑善达克沙地不仅具有强烈的日变化,而且季节变化也显著.2000年两地月平均地表温度日较差最大值超过30 K,浑善达克沙地的年较差高达58.50 K.青藏高原地表温度季节变化小于东亚部分陆地、塔里木盆地、浑善达克沙地,但该区日变化幅度在所研究几个区中最大,2000年年平均日较差达28.05 K.文中将研究时段扩充到1998～2000年后揭示了连续三年地表温度及其日变化的年际变化特征.所获得这几类地表温度的变化特征与量值对于气候与辐射收支研究以及推测地表状况会有一定参考价值.     

Comparative analysis of different underlying surfaces using a high-resolution assimilation dataset in semi-arid areas in China

To study the land surface and atmospheric meteorological characteristics of non-uniform underlying surfaces in the semi-arid area of Northeast China, we use a “High-Resolution Assimilation Dataset of the water-energy cycle in China (HRADC)”. The grid points of three different underlying surfaces were selected, and their meteorological elements were averaged for each type (i.e., mixed forest, grassland, and cropland). For 2009, we compared and analyzed the different components of leaf area index (LAI), soil temperature and moisture, surface albedo, precipitation, and surface energy for various underlying surfaces in Northeast China. The results indicated that the LAI of mixed forest and cropland during the summer is greater than 5 m² m^?2 and below 2.5 m² m^?2 for grassland; in the winter and spring seasons, the Green Vegetation Fraction (GVF) is below 30%. The soil temperature and moisture both vary greatly. Throughout the year, the mixed forest is dominated by latent heat evaporation; in grasslands and croplands, the sensible heat flux and the latent heat flux are approximately equal, and the GVF contributed more to latent heat flux than sensible heat flux in the summer. This study compares meteorological characteristics between three different underlying surfaces of the semi-arid area of Northeast China and makes up for the insufficiency of purely using observations for the study. This research is important for understanding the water-energy cycle and transport in the semi-arid area.     

基于中国植被数据的陆面覆盖及其对陆面过程模拟的影响

本文基于中国1:100万植被图、马里兰大学AVHRR森林覆盖资料和中国753个气象站点40年的降水气温资料, 发展了一套用于气候模拟的中国陆面覆盖资料(Chinese land cover derived from vegetation map, 简称CLCV)。该套资料与CLM(Community Land Model)原来所用的MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) 陆面覆盖资料相比有较大不同: 其中裸土比例减少了14.5%, 森林、灌木、草原和农作物比例分别增加了3.3%、4.8%、4.4%和0.3%, 冰川、湖泊和湿地比例分别增加了0.4%、0.8%和0.6%。将CLCV和MODIS资料分别与全国土地资源概查汇总结果分省统计资料和基于中国1 km土地利用图的土地利用资料比较表明, CLCV与两者较为接近。最后, 利用CLM模式分别采用CLCV与MODIS陆面覆盖资料在中国区域内进行数值模拟, 结果显示, 使用CLCV资料所模拟的蒸散增加了约7.7 mm/a; 地表反照率、 感热和径流分别减小了约0.7%、 0.3 W/m2和7.6 mm/a; 与MODIS卫星反演地表反照率和GRDC (Global Runoff Data Centre) 径流资料比较表明, 利用CLCV资料所模拟的地表反照率有一定改进, 并能基本模拟出径流分布趋势。     

Evaluation of the Forecast Accuracy of Near-Surface Temperature and Wind in Northwest China Based on the WRF Model

This study investigated the performance of the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model in predicting near-surface atmospheric temperature and wind for a complex underlying surface in Northwest China in June and December 2015. The spatial distribution of the monthly average bias errors in the forecasts of 2-m temperature and 10-m wind speed is analyzed first. It is found that the forecast errors for 2-m temperature and 10-m wind speed in June are strongly correlated with the terrain distribution. However, this type of correlation is not apparent in December, perhaps due to the inaccurate specification of the surface albedo and freezing–thawing process of frozen soil in winter in Northwest China in the WRF model. In addition, the WRF model is able to reproduce the diurnal variation in 2-m temperature and 10-m wind speed, although with weakened magnitude. Elevations and land-use types have strong influences on the forecast of near-surface variables with seasonal variations. The overall results imply that accurate specification of the complex underlying surface and seasonal changes in land cover is necessary for improving near-surface forecasts over Northwest China.