Intergrain contact density indices for granular mixes II： Liquefaction resistance

Whether the presence of non-plastic silt in a granular mix soil impact its liquefaction potential and how to evaluate liquefaction resistance of sand containing different amounts of silt contents are both controversial issues. This paper presents the results of an experimental evaluation to address these issues. Two parameters, namely, equivalent intergranular void ratio （ec）eq and equivalent interfine void ratio （ef）eq, proposed in a companion paper （Thevanayagam, 2007） as indices of active grain contacts in a granular mix, are used to characterize liquefaction resistance of sands and silty sands. Results indicate that, at the same global void ratio （e）, liquefaction resistance of silty sand decreases with an increase in fines content （Cv） up to a threshold value （Crth）. This is due to a reduction in intergrain contact density between the coarse grains. Beyond Crth, with further addition of fines, the interfine contacts become significant while the inter-coarse grain contacts diminish and coarse grains become dispersed. At the same e, the liquefaction resistance increases and the soil becomes stronger with a fttrther increase in silt content. Beyond a limiting fines content （CrL）, the liquefaction resistance is controlled by interfine contacts only. When Cr〈Crth, at the same （e）eq, the liquefaction resistance of silty sand is comparable to that of the host clean sand at a void ratio equal to （ec）eq. When CF〉CFth, at the same （ef）eq, the cyclic strength of a sandy silt is comparable to the host silt at a void ratio equal to （ef）eq.     

Intergrain contact density indices for granular mixes——Ⅰ: Framework

Mechanical behavior such as stress-strain response, shear strength, resistance to liquefaction, modulus, and shear wave velocity of granular mixes containing coarse and fine grains is dependent on intergrain contact density of the soil. The global void ratio e is a poor index of contact density for such soils. The contact density depends on void ratio, fine grain content (CF), size disparity between particles, and gradation among other factors. A simple analysis of a two-sized particle system with large size disparity is used to develop an understanding of the effects of CF , e, and gradation of coarse and fine grained soils in the soil mix on intergrain contact density. An equivalent intergranular void ratio (ec)eq is introduced as a useful intergrain contact density for soils at fines content of less than a threshold value CFth. Beyond this value, an equivalent interfine void ratio (ef)eq is introduced as a primary intergrain contact density index. At higher values of CF beyond a limiting value of fine grains content CFL, an interfine void ratio ef is introduced as the primary contact density index. Relevant equivalent relative density indices (Drc)eq and (Drf)eq are also presented. Experimental data show that these new indices correlate well with steady state strength, liquefaction resistance, and shear wave velocities of sands, silty sands, sandy silts, and gravelly sand mixes.     

Intergrain contact density indices for granular mixes I： Framework

Mechanical behavior such as stress-strain response, shear strength, resistance to liquefaction, modulus, and shear wave velocity of granular mixes containing coarse and fine grains is dependent on intergrain contact density of the soil. The global void ratio e is a poor index of contact density for such soils. The contact density depends on void ratio, fine grain content （Cv）, size disparity between particles, and gradation among other factors. A simple analysis of a two-sized particle system with large size disparity is used to develop an understanding of the effects of Cv, e, and gradation of coarse and fine grained soils in the soil mix on intergrain contact density. An equivalent intergranular void ratio （ec）oq is introduced as a useful intergrain contact density for soils at fines content of less than a threshold value Crth. Beyond this value, an equivalent interfine void ratio （ef）eq is introduced as a primary intergrain contact density index. At higher values of Cv beyond a limiting value of fine grains content CVL, an interfine void ratio ef is introduced as the primary contact density index. Relevant equivalent relative density indices （Drc）eq and （Drf）eq are also presented. Experimental data show that these new indices correlate well with steady state strength, liquefaction resistance, and shear wave velocities of sands, silty sands, sandy silts, and gravelly sand mixes.     

Liquefaction mitigation in silty soils using composite stone columns and dynamic compaction

The objective of this study is to develop an analytical methodology to evaluate the effectiveness ofvibro stone column (S. C.) and dynamic compaction (D.C.) techniques supplemented with wick drains to densify and mitigate liquethctionin saturated sands and non-plastic silty soils. It includes the following: (i) develop numerical models to simulate and analyze soil densification during S.C. installation and D.C. process, and (ii) identify parameters controlling post-improvement soil density in both cases, and (iii) develop design guidelines for densification of silty soils using the above techniques. An analytical procedure was developed and used to simulate soil response during S.C. and D.C. installations, and the results were compared with available case history data. Important construction design parameters and soil properties that affect the effectiveness of these techniques, and construction design choices suitable for sands and non-plastic silty soils were identified. The methodology is expected to advance the use of S.C. and DC. in silty soils reducing the reliance on expensive field trials as a design tool. The ultimate outcome of this research will be design charts and design guidelines for using composite stone columns and composite dynamic compaction techniques in liquefaction mitigation of saturated silty soils.     

Shake table test of soil-pile groups-bridge structure interaction in liquefiable ground

<正>This paper describes a shake table test study on the seismic response of low-cap pile groups and a bridge structure in liquefiable ground.The soil profile,contained in a large-scale laminar shear box,consisted of a horizontally saturated sand layer overlaid with a silty clay layer,with the simulated low-cap pile groups embedded.The container was excited in three E1 Centra earthquake events of different levels.Test results indicate that excessive pore pressure(EPP) during slight shaking only slightly accumulated,and the accumulation mainly occurred during strong shaking.The EPP was gradually enhanced as the amplitude and duration of the input acceleration increased.The acceleration response of the sand was remarkably influenced by soil liquefaction.As soil liquefaction occurred,the peak sand displacement gradually lagged behind the input acceleration;meanwhile,the sand displacement exhibited an increasing effect on the bending moment of the pile,and acceleration responses of the pile and the sand layer gradually changed from decreasing to increasing in the vertical direction from the bottom to the top.A jump variation of the bending moment on the pile was observed near the soil interface in all three input earthquake events.It is thought that the shake table tests could provide the groundwork for further seismic performance studies of low-cap pile groups used in bridges located on liquefiable groun.     

Undrained monotonic and cyclic behavior of sand-ground rubber mixtures

In this study the stress–strain characteristics of sand-ground rubber mixtures are investigated in the sandlike zone,at different confining pressures,using hollow cylinder specimens subjected to torsional monotonic and cyclic loading.Under monotonic loading a mixture of sand-ground rubber with 10% and 25% rubber content show more contraction behaviour than that observed in a pure sand specimen.Phase transformation point in these mixtures are located on a larger shear strain.As expected,the shear strength of specimens decreases with increase of ground rubber content.However,with increasing of effective confining pressure,the loss in shear strength of the mixture is decreased.In addition,a mixture with 25% ground rubber shows a smaller loss in shear strength compared to a mixture with 10% ground rubber mixture.Under cyclic loading mixtures with 10% and 25% ground rubber have similar liquefaction resistance,especially at confining pressures of 110 k Pa and 260 k Pa.Therefore,by using of the mixture with 25% ground rubber,a larger volume of scrap tires could be recycled.The addition of ground rubber to sand would affect the shear strain variation and excess pore water pressure trends,and this effect was further intensified with increasing ground rubber percentage.     

Physical modeling and visualization of soil liquefaction under high confining stress

The mechanisms of seismically-induced liquefaction of granular soils under high confining stresses are still not fully understood. Evaluation of these mechanisms is generally based on extrapolation of observed behavior at shallow depths. Three centrifuge model tests were conducted at RPI‘s experimental facility to investigate the effects of confining stresses on the dynamic response of a deep horizontal deposit of saturated sand. Liquefaction was observed at high confining stresses in each of the tests. A system identification procedure was used to estimate the associated shear strain and stress time histories. These histories revealed a response marked by shear strength degradation and dilative patterns. The recorded accelerations and pore pressures were employed to generate visual animations of the models. These visualizations revealed a liquefaction front traveling downward and leading to large shear strains and isolation of upper soil layers.     

Effects of silt loading on turbulence and sand transport

The transport of bed material and fluid turbulence are affected by many factors,including the fine sediment load being carried in a channel.Current research has focused on sand-sized particles introduced to gravel beds,while the effect of silt load on sand transport has received less attention. Experiments on the effects of silt load,in concentrations 0-26,900 mg l^-1,on sand transport were performed with a recirculating laboratory flume using three different sand bed configurations:ripples （Fr=0.24）,dunes（Fr=0.34）,and dunes（Fr=0.48）.Three Acoustic Doppler Velocimeters were arranged to measure flow and turbulence quantities simultaneously in one vertical.Sand transport did not change in a consistent manner with increasing silt load,increasing up to 4,000 mg l^-1 for dunes （Fr=0.48） and up to 2,000 mg l^-1 for dunes（Fr=0.34） and then declining to near the clear water case with increasing silt concentrations.Silt addition for the ripple case caused a relatively small change in sand transport,decreasing with added silt up to approximately 2,000 mg l^-1 and then increasing as silt went up to approximately 10,000 mg l^-1.Dunes（Fr=0.48） decreased in length and height as silt increased,while dunes（Fr=0.34） did not show a consistent trend.A clear trend of decreasing Reynolds stress with increasing silt concentration was observed in the ripple case,with a 33% reduction in near-bed Reynolds stress caused by an 8,900 mg l^-1 concentration of silt.     

PERMEABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SEDIMENT MIXTURES AS FUNCTION OF SAND CONTENT AND CLAY MINERALOGY

The current study is the first step in a systematic experimental research on the erosion behaviour of sand-mud mixtures. It concerns the effect of a varying sand content and clay mineralogy on the porosity, structure, strength and permeability of artificially generated sediment mixtures. The permeability of a sediment mixture is an especially significant parameter concerning the type of erosion that occurs. It determines if the erosion of the bed is either a drained or an undrained process, respectively indicating surface erosion or mass erosion. Measurements on various mixtures concerning the consolidation coefficient and the permeability have been executed. Results show a distinct transition of behaviour between a sand-silt dominated network structure and a clay-water matrix. The occurrence of these two types of structures appears to depend on the porosity of the volume fraction of sand related to silt, which is, therefore, an important parameter concerning the type of erosion. Finally, the study provides a valuable data set that can be used as a reference for following stages of this research on the erosion behaviour of natural cohesive sediments.     

Time Series Analysis on the Ratio for Pixels with Abnormal Brightness Temperature Increase and Its Variation Before Some Earthquakes with Ms ≥ 5.0 in the Taiwan Area

In the study of the application of MODIS satellite remote sensing data to earthquake prediction, the paper puts forward for the first time a quantitative method to estimate the ratio for the pixels with abnormal brightness temperature (BT) increase and a preliminary scheme for cloud removal. The principle is that, firstly, the cloudless data observed by the same satellite at the same period of time but in different days (usually 1 day to 3 days) are mosaiced to get high ratio of clear sky, and then the BT variation curve and mean square difference (MSD) of each pixel are calculated with the data from the covered area to determine daily whether the BT data of the day is normal or not at a certain pixel by using double the MSD as the criterion. The ratio for the pixels with abnormal BT increase can be calculated by dividing the total number of abnormal pixels with the total pixels of the whole area. Analysis on a series of recent earthquakes in the Taiwan area shows that the ratio for pixels with abnormal BT increase, which normally undulates around zero, has a sudden enhancement 1 day to 20 days before medium-strong earthquakes. It is expected that a new method for identifying earthquake auspice could be found through special studies in regions with frequent seismic activity by analyzing the change of the ratio for the pixels with abnormal BT increase from MODIS satellite remote sensing infrared (IR) information from which the effect of clouds has been removed to a certain extent.     

Estimation of residual shear strength ratios of liquefied soil deposits from shear wave velocity

For sites susceptible to liquefaction induced lateral spreading during a probable earthquake, geotechnical engineers often need to know the undrained residual shear strength of the liquefied soil deposit to estimate lateral spreading displacements, and the forces acting on the piles from the liquefied soils in order to perform post liquefaction stability analyses. The most commonly used methods to estimate the undrained residual shear strength (Sur) of liquefied sand deposits are based on the correlations determined from liquefaction induced flow failures with SPT and CPT data. In this study, 44 lateral spread case histories are analyzed and a new relationship based on only lateral spread case histories is recommended, which estimates the residual shear strength ratio of the liquefiable soil layer from normalized shear wave velocity. The new proposed method is also utilized to estimate the residual lateral displacement of an example bridge problem in an area susceptible to lateral spreading in order to provide insight into how the proposed relationship can be used in geotechnical engineering practice.     

Variations in total organic carbon and grain size distribution in ephemeral river sediments in western India

Total organic carbon(TOC) and grain size distribution(sand,silt,and clay) in the ephemeral Mahi River(western India) sediments were measured to look at their effectiveness in understanding the late Quaternary monsoon conditions.Four sites spread across the alluvial zone and three sites from the estuarine zone were sampled.TOC concentration in the sediments of the alluvial and estuarine zone sites ranged between 0.04 and 0.39%and 0.04 and 0.23%,respectively.It was observed that grain size differed significantly at the alluvial zone sites,whereas an uniform trend was found in the estuarine zone sites.The study indicated that low concentration of TOC and coarse size fractions(sand) in sediments were well correlated with available records of arid/weaker palaeomonsoon periods,whereas higher concentration of TOC and fine grain size fractions(silt + clay) in sediments were well correlated with available records of enhanced palaeomonsoon periods of the ephemeral Mahi River.Uniform concentrations of TOC and fine grain size particles in sediments at the estuarine zone sites are attributed to the backwater in the system,deeper sedimentation,and/or greater decomposition processes.It is concluded that,TOC and grain size distributions in the ephemeraL river sediments are simple and effective parameters to develop an understanding about late Quaternary monsoon conditions in ephemeral rivers.     

Experimental study of surface texture and resonance mechanism of booming sand

The sound-producing mechanism of booming sand has long been a pending problem in the blown sand physics. Based on the earlier researches, the authors collected some silent sand samples from Teng- ger Desert, Australian Desert, Kuwait Desert, beaches of Hainan Island and Japanese coast as well as the soundless booming sand samples from the Mingsha Mountain in Dunhuang to make washing ex- periments. In the meantime the chemical corrosion experiment of glass micro-spheres, surface coating experiment and SEM examination were also conducted. The experimental results show that the sound production of booming sand seems to have nothing to do with the presence of SiO2 gel on the surface of sand grains and unrelated to the surface chemical composition of sand grains but is related to the resonance cavities formed by porous (pit-like) physical structure resulting from a number of factors such as wind erosion, water erosion, chemical corrosion and SiO2 gel deposition, etc. Its resonance mechanism is similar to that of Hemholz resonance cavity. Under the action of external forces, nu- merous spherical and sand grains with smooth surface and porous surface are set in motion and rub with each other to produce extremely weak vibration sound and then become audible sound by human ears through the magnification of surface cavity resonance. However the booming sands may lose their resonance mechanism and become silent sand due to the damping action caused by the invasion of finer particles such as dust and clay into surface holes of sand grains. Therefore, clearing away fine pollutants on the quartz grain surface is an effective way to make silent sand emit audible sound.     

A shake table investigation of dynamic behavior of pile supported bridges in liquefiable soil deposits

Bridges are a part of vital infrastructure,which should operate even after a disaster to keep emergency services running.There have been numerous bridge failures during major past earthquakes due to liquefaction.Among other categories of failures,mid span collapse(without the failure of abutments)of pile supported bridges founded in liquefiable deposits are still observed even in most recent earthquakes.This mechanism of collapse is attributed to the effects related to the differential elongation of natural period of the individual piers during liquefaction.A shake table investigation has been carried out in this study to verify mechanisms behind midspan collapse of pile supported bridges in liquefiable deposits.In this investigation,a typical pile supported bridge is scaled down,and its foundations pass through the liquefiable loose sandy soil and rest in a dense gravel layer.White noise motions of increasing acceleration magnitude have been applied to initiate progressive liquefaction and to characterize the dynamic features of the bridge.It has been found that as the liquefaction of the soil sets in,the natural frequency of individual bridge support is reduced,with the highest reduction occurring near the central spans.As a result,there is differential lateral displacement and bending moment demand on the piles.It has also been observed that for the central pile,the maximum bending moment in the pile will occur at a higher elevation,as compared to that of the interface of soils of varied stiffness,unlike the abutment piles.The practical implications of this research are also highlighted.     

Quantitative estimation of sediment erosion and accretion processes in a micro-tidal coast

Spatio-temporal cross-shore profiles and textural characteristics are the key parameters for understanding dynamics of the inter-tidal sedimentary environment.This study describes short-term dynamics of the inter-tidal sedimentary environment at beaches along the micro-tidal coast.Further a correlation is estimated in cross-shore morphodynamics and textural characteristics of surface sediments.The sedimentary environment is examined for a complete annual cycle using monthly collected cross-shore profiles and sediment samples.The Devbag beach（northern side） and Ravindranath Tagore beach（southern side） at the Kali river mouth,Karwar,west coast of India are characterized from extremely gentle to average slope,and broadly composed of unimodal sands.The sedimentary environment is significantly composed of textures having fine to medium sand,well to moderately sorted,fine to coarse skewed,and platykurtic to leptokurtic in nature.During the annual cycle a reversal pattern is observed between the two adjacent beaches,where a slower rate of sediment accretion is observed at Devbag beach while Ravindranath Tagore beach exhibited erosion.The beach dynamics along with the propagation of south-west（SW） and south-west-west（SWW） waves towards the coast significantly exhibit a dominance of northward sediment transport with the existence of a northerly alongshore current.In addition,the study reveals that an eroded beach may not be significantly identified composed of coarse grains.The poor correlation in morpho-sedimentary characteristics reveals the prediction of grain characteristics based on beach profile and vice-versa is unrealistic.     

Experimental study of vertical and batter pile groups in saturated sand using a centrifuge shaking table

To study the dynamic response of vertical and batter pile groups in saturated sand,dynamic tests of these pile groups in saturated sand were carried out using the ZJU400 geotechnical centrifuge at Zhejiang University.The following results were obtained.(1)As the motion intensity increased,the peak acceleration in soil layers at different depths significantly decreased,indicating that the soil stiffness was significantly reduced.(2)During the motion process,the instantaneous bending moment of the vertical and batter pile groups at different depths changed continuously,which had a strong relationship with the saturated sand liquefaction.In the process of sand liquefaction,the residual bending moment generated by the batter pile was more obvious than that of the vertical pile.(3)With the liquefaction of the saturated sand,the distribution of the maximum bending moment of the vertical pile group changed,and the bending moment near the pile cap of the vertical and batter pile groups was always large.(4)In certain cases,the horizontal acceleration and dynamic displacement of the vertical pile cap were amplified.When the motion intensity was large,residual displacement of the batter pile cap occurred.     

Sand dunes as potential sources of dust in northern China

While saltation bombardment of sand grains on a fine substrate can produce considerable dust, the well-sorted nature of sand dunes tends to preclude them from consideration as major dust sources. Recent research, however, has revealed that sand dunes can, in some cases, be large sources of dust. We used the PI-SWERL(Portable In-Situ Wind Erosion Laboratory) to measure in the field the potential of sand dunes and other desert landforms to emit particulate matter 10 μm(PM-10) dust in the Tengger, Ulan Buh, and Mu Us deserts of northern China. Combined with high resolution particle size measurements of the dune sand, an assessment of sand dunes as a dust source can be made. Large active transverse dunes tend to contain little to no stored PM-10, yet they produce a low dust flux. Coppice dunes stabilized by vegetation contain appreciable PM-10 and have very high dust emission potential. There is a positive correlation between the amount of PM-10 stored in a dune and its potential dust flux. Saltation liberates loose fines stored in dunes, making them very efficient dust emitters compared to landforms such as dry lake beds and washes where dust particles are unavailable for aeolian transport due to protective crusts or sediment cohesion. In cases where large dunes do not store PM-10 yet emit dust when active, two hypotheses can be considered:(1) iron-oxide grain coatings are removed during saltation, creating dust, and(2) sand grains collide during saltation, abrading grains to create dust. Observations reveal that iron oxide coatings are present on some dune sands. PI-SWERL data suggests that low dust fluxes from dunes containing no stored dust may represent an estimate for the amount of PM-10 dust produced by removal of iron oxide coatings. These results are similar to results from dunes in the United States. In addition, PI-SWERL results suggest that dust-bearing coppice dunes, which cover vast areas of China's sandy deserts, may become major sources of dust in the future if overgrazing, depletion of groundwater, or drought destabilizes the vegetation that now partially covers these dunes.     

An investigation into the effects of particle texture,water content and parallel plates' diameters on rheological behavior of fine sediment

Siltation,a phenomenon resulted from the presence of fine particles in an aqueous environment,dominated by silt and clay,is a known and common environmental issue worldwide.The accumulation of fine sediments engenders murky water with low oxygen levels,which leads to the death of aquatic life.Thus,investigating the physical and mechanical properties of fine sediment by rheological methods has expanded.Rheology is the science of deformation and flow of matter in stress.This survey investigates the rheological behavior of six samples of soil as the fine particles structure(D 63 μm) from different regions of Malaysia by using a rotational rheometer with a parallel-plate measuring(using two sizes:25 mm and 50 mm) device to explore the flow and viscoelastic properties of fine particles.The samples were examined in two rheological curve and amplitude sweep test methods to investigate the effect of water content ratio,texture,and structure of patticles on rheological properties.It was found that the content of fine sand,clay,and silt had an effect on the stiffness,structural stability,and shear behavior.Thus,the pseudoplastic and viscoelastic behaviot are respectively shown.Moreover,the amount of fine sediments present in water i.e.the concentration of these particles,has a direct effect on the rheological curve.A reduction in viscosity of samples with higher concentrations of water has been observed.As a consequence,a considerable quantity of fine sediments are distributed within the water body and remain suspended over the time.As a result,the sedimentation rate slows down.It needs to be asserted that the stotage modulus G′,loss modulus G″,and yield point can vary depending on particle type.The G′ and G″were instigated for samples(70%and 45%concentrations) that demonstrated viscoelastic characteristics using the same rotational rheometer with a parallel-plate measuring device.     

Behavior of braced wall embedded in saturated liquefiable sand under seismic loading

It is well known that the generation of excess pore water pressure and/or liquefaction in foundation soils during an earthquake often cause structural failures.This paper describes the behavior of a small-scale braced wall embedded in saturated liquefiable sand under dynamic condition.Shake table tests are performed in the laboratory on embedded retaining walls with single bracing.The tests are conducted for different excavation depths and base motions.The influences of the peak magnitude of the ground motions and the excavation depth on the axial forces in the bracing,the lateral displacement and the bending moments in the braced walls are studied.The shake table tests are simulated numerically using FLAC 2D and the results are compared with the corresponding experimental results.The pore water pressures developed in the soil are found to influence the behavior of the braced wall structures during a dynamic event.It is found that the excess pore water pressure development in the soil below the excavation is higher compared to the soil beside the walls.Thus,the soil below the excavation level is more susceptible to the liquefaction compared to the soil beside the walls.