Atmospheric Stability Effects on Wind Fields and Scalar Mixing Within and Just Above a Subalpine Forest in Sloping Terrain

Air temperature T _a , specific humidity q, CO₂ mole fraction χ _c , and three-dimensional winds were measured in mountainous terrain from five tall towers within a 1 km region encompassing a wide range of canopy densities. The measurements were sorted by a bulk Richardson number Ri _b . For stable conditions, we found vertical scalar differences developed over a “transition” region between 0.05 < Ri _b < 0.5. For strongly stable conditions (Ri _b > 1), the vertical scalar differences reached a maximum and remained fairly constant with increasing stability. The relationships q and χ _c have with Ri _b are explained by considering their sources and sinks. For winds, the strong momentum absorption in the upper canopy allows the canopy sublayer to be influenced by pressure gradient forces and terrain effects that lead to complex subcanopy flow patterns. At the dense-canopy sites, soil respiration coupled with wind-sheltering resulted in CO₂ near the ground being 5–7 μmol mol⁻¹ larger than aloft, even with strong above-canopy winds (near-neutral conditions). We found Ri _b -binning to be a useful tool for evaluating vertical scalar mixing; however, additional information (e.g., pressure gradients, detailed vegetation/topography, etc.) is needed to fully explain the subcanopy wind patterns. Implications of our results for CO₂ advection over heterogenous, complex terrain are discussed.     

A lagrangian random-walk model for simulating water vapor,CO2 and sensible heat flux densities and scalar profiles over and within a soybean canopy

An integrated canopy micrometeorological model is described for calculating CO₂, water vapor and sensible heat exchange rates and scalar concentration profiles over and within a crop canopy. The integrated model employs a Lagrangian random walk algorithm to calculate turbulent diffusion. The integrated model extends previous Lagrangian modelling efforts by employing biochemical, physiological and micrometeorological principles to evaluate vegetative sources and sinks. Model simulations of water vapor, CO₂ and sensible heat flux densities are tested against measurements made over a soybean canopy, while calculations of scalar profiles are tested against measurements made above and within the canopy. The model simulates energy and mass fluxes and scalar profiles above the canopy successfully. On the other hand, model calculations of scalar profiles inside the canopy do not match measurements.The tested Lagrangian model is also used to evaluate simpler modelling schemes, as needed for regional and global applications. Simple, half-order closure modelling schemes (which assume a constant scalar profile in the canopy) do not yield large errors in the computation of latent heat (LE) and CO₂ (F _c ) flux densities. Small errors occur because the source-sink formulation of LE andF _c are relatively insensitive to changes in scalar concentrations and the scalar gradients are small. On the other hand, complicated modelling frames may be needed to calculate sensible heat flux densities; the source-sink formulation of sensible heat is closely coupled to the within-canopy air temperature profile.     

On Measuring Net Ecosystem Carbon Exchange Over Tall Vegetation on Complex Terrain

To assess annual budgets of CO₂ exchange betweenthe biosphere and atmosphere over representativeecosystems, long-term measurements must be made overecosystems that do not exist on ideal terrain. How tointerpret eddy covariance measurements correctlyremains a major task. At present, net ecosystemCO₂ exchange is assessed, by members of themicrometeorological community, as the sum of eddycovariance measurements and the storage of CO₂ inthe underlying air. This approach, however, seemsunsatisfactory as numerous investigators are reportingthat it may be causing nocturnal respiration fluxdensities to be underestimated.A new theory was recently published by Lee (1998, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 91: 39–50) for assessing net ecosystem-atmosphere CO₂ exchange(N_e) over non-ideal terrain. Itincludes a vertical advection term. We apply thisequation over a temperate broadleaved forest growingin undulating terrain. Inclusion of the verticaladvection term yields hourly, daily and annual sums ofnet ecosystem CO₂ exchange that are moreecologically correct during the growing season.During the winter dormant period, on the other hand,corrected CO₂ flux density measurements of anactively respiring forest were near zero. Thisobservation is unrealistic compared to chambermeasurements and model calculations. Only duringmidday, when the atmosphere is well-mixed, domeasurements of N_e match estimatesbased on model calculations and chamber measurements. On an annual basis, sums of N_ewithout the advection correction were 40% too large,as compared with computations derived from a validatedand process-based model. With the inclusion of theadvection correction term, we observe convergencebetween measured and calculated values ofN_e on hourly, daily and yearly time scales. We cannot, however, conclude that inclusion of aone-dimensional, vertical advection term into thecontinuity equation is sufficient for evaluatingCO₂ exchange over tall forests in complexterrain. There is an indication that the neglected term,( c¯/ x), isnon-zero and that CO₂ may be leakingfrom the sides of the control volume during the winter. In this circumstance, forest floor CO₂ effluxdensities exceed effluxes measured above the canopy.     

Horizontal and Vertical Co2 Advection In A Sloping Forest

A system measuring the horizontal and vertical advection was devised and installed in a sloping forest at the Vielsalm site, Belgium. The measurements showed that under stable conditions a flow regime established below the canopy: air flowed horizontally along the slope and entrained the air above the canopy vertically. This movement occurs during stable nights characterised by strongly negative net radiation. It creates negative air concentration gradients in both the vertical and horizontal directions. The advection fluxes associated with these movements are opposite and of a similar order of magnitude. This implies that the horizontal advection cannot be ignored in the carbon budget equation at night. Unfortunately, the large variability of, and considerable uncertainty about, advection fluxes does not enable one to produce estimates of the source term from these equations. Advection measurement systems should be improved in order to enable such estimates to be made. Particular attention should be paid to the estimation of the vertical velocity above the canopy and to the vertical profiles of the horizontal velocity and horizontal CO₂ gradient below the canopy.     

Comparing CO2 Storage and Advection Conditions at Night at Different Carboeuroflux Sites

Anemometer and CO₂ concentration data from temporary campaigns performed at six CARBOEUROFLUX forest sites were used to estimate the importance of non-turbulent fluxes in nighttime conditions. While storage was observed to be significant only during periods of both low turbulence and low advection, the advective fluxes strongly influence the nocturnal CO₂ balance, with the exception of almost flat and highly homogeneous sites. On the basis of the main factors determining the onset of advective fluxes, the ‘advection velocity’, which takes net radiation and local topography into account, was introduced as a criterion to characterise the conditions of storage enrichment/depletion. Comparative analyses of the six sites showed several common features of the advective fluxes but also some substantial differences. In particular, all sites where advection occurs show the onset of a boundary layer characterised by a downslope flow, negative vertical velocities and negative vertical CO₂ concentration gradients during nighttime. As a consequence, vertical advection was observed to be positive at all sites, which corresponds to a removal of CO₂ from the ecosystem. The main differences between sites are the distance from the ridge, which influences the boundary-layer depth, and the sign of the mean horizontal CO₂ concentration gradients, which is probably determined by the source/sink distribution. As a consequence, both positive and negative horizontal advective fluxes (corresponding respectively to CO₂ removal from the ecosystem and to CO₂ supply to the ecosystem) were observed. Conclusive results on the importance of non-turbulent components in the mass balance require, however, further experimental investigations at sites with different topographies, slopes, different land covers, which would allow a more comprehensive analysis of the processes underlying the occurrence of advective fluxes. The quantification of these processes would help to better quantify nocturnal CO₂ exchange rates.     

Forest-Air Fluxes Of Carbon, Water And Energy Over Non-Flat Terrain

A field study of surface-air exchange of carbon, water, and energy was conducted at a mid-latitude, mixed forest on non-flat terrain to investigate how to best interpret biological signals from the eddy flux data that may be subject to advective influences. It is shown that during periods of Southwest winds (sector with mild topography), the eddy fluxes are well-behaved in terms of energy balance closure, the existence of a constant flux layer, consistency with chamber observations and the expected abiotic controls on the fluxes. Advective influences are evident during periods with wind from a steep (15%) slope to the Northeast of the tower. These influences appear more severe on CO₂ flux, particularly in stable air, than on the energy fluxes. Large positive flux of CO₂ (> 23 mol m^-2 s^-1) occurs frequently at night. The annual sum of the carbon flux is positive, but the issue about whether the forest is a source of atmospheric carbon remains inconclusive.Attempts are made to assess vertical advectionusing the data collected on a single tower. Over the Southwestsector, vertical advection makes a statistically significant but small contribution to the 30-min energy imbalance and CO₂ flux variations. Contributions by horizontal advection may be larger but cannot be verified directly by the current experimental method.     

On the heat budget of the Arabian Sea

Summary The rate of oceanic heat storage of the upper 200m of the Arabian Sea is explained in terms of net air-sea heat flux (Q _F), heat change due to horizontal divergence and vertical motion (Q _V) and heat change due to lateral advection (Q _A). The analysis revealed that the heat storage of the Arabian Sea is mainly controlled byQ _V while the effect ofQ _A is much larger than expected. Parameterisation of summer cooling revealed that the depletion of energy from the mixed layer is mainly due to upwelling and horizontal advection though large amount of heat is accumulated due to net air-sea heat flux. The annual heat balance of the upper 200m of the Arabian Sea suggested large heat gain by air-sea exchange processes. About two third of this heat gain is compensated by horizontal advection and one third by vertical advection.With 4 Figures     

Aspects of CO2 advection measurements

Observations of vegetation–atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide (CO₂) by the eddy covariance (EC) technique are limited by difficult conditions such as nighttime and heterogeneous terrain. Thus, advective flux components are included into the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) budget. However, advection measurements are experimentally challenging and do not always help to solve the night flux problem of the EC technique. This study investigates alternative methods for the observation of horizontal advection, in particular horizontal concentration gradients, as well as different approaches to coordinate rotation and vertical advection. Continuous high-frequency measurements of the horizontal CO₂ concentration field are employed and compared to the often used discontinuous sequential sampling. Significant differences were found in the case of 30-min mean concentration values between the conventional discontinuous sampling approach and the complete observation of the time series by continuous sampling. Estimates of vertical advection rely on accurate estimates of vertical wind velocity ( $\emph{w}$ ). Therefore, different approaches to the planar fit coordinate rotation have been investigated. Sector-wise rotation was able to eliminate directional dependencies of mean $\emph{w}$ . Furthermore, the effect of the data set length used for rotation (window length) was investigated and was found to have significant impact on estimates of vertical advection, with larger window lengths yielding about 50% larger vertical advection. A sequential planar fit with controlled window length is proposed to give reproducible results. The different approaches to the measurement and calculation of horizontal and vertical advection presented are applied to data obtained during the exchange processes in mountainous region experiment at the FLUXNET site Waldstein–Weidenbrunnen (DE-Bay). Estimates of NEE including advection are compared to NEE from turbulent and storage flux alone without advection. NEE including vertical advection with sector-wise planar fit rotation and controlled window length and including horizontal advection from continuous gradient measurements, which were comprehensively bias corrected by a new approach, did compare well with the expected night flux error, with meteorological drivers of the fluxes and with soil chamber measurements. Unrealistically large and noisy values of horizontal advection from the conventional discontinuous sampling approach, which lead to unrealistic values of NEE, could be eliminated by the alternative approaches presented. We therefore suggest the further testing of those approaches at other sites in order to improve the accuracy of advection measurements and, subsequently, estimates of NEE.     

Organised Motion in a Tall Spruce Canopy: Temporal Scales,Structure Spacing and Terrain Effects

This study investigates the organised motion near the canopy-atmosphere interface of a moderately dense spruce forest in heterogeneous, complex terrain. Wind direction is used to assess differences in topography and surface properties. Observations were obtained at several heights above and within the canopy using sonic anemometers and fast-response gas analysers over the course of several weeks. Analysed variables include the three-dimensional wind vector, the sonic temperature, and the concentration of carbon dioxide. Wavelet analysis was used to extract the organised motion from time series and to derive its temporal scales. Spectral Fourier analysis was deployed to compute power spectra and phase spectra. Profiles of temporal scales of ramp-like coherent structures in the vertical and longitudinal wind components showed a reversed variation with height and were of similar size within the canopy. Temporal scales of scalar fields were comparable to those of the longitudinal wind component suggesting that the lateral scalar transport dominates. The existence of a – 1 power law in the longitudinal power spectra was confirmed for a few cases only, with a majority showing a clear 5/3 decay. The variation of effective scales of organised motion in the longitudinal velocity and temperature were found to vary with atmospheric stability, suggesting that both Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities and attached eddies dominate the flow with increasing convectional forcing. The canopy mixing-layer analogy was observed to be applicable for ramp-like coherent structures in the vertical wind component for selected wind directions only. Departures from the prediction of m = Λ _w L _s ⁻¹ = 8–10 (where Λ _w is the streamwise spacing of coherent structures in the vertical wind w and L _s is a canopy shear length scale) were caused by smaller shear length scales associated with large-scale changes in the terrain as well as the vertical structure of the canopy. The occurrence of linear gravity waves was related to a rise in local topography and can therefore be referred to as mountain-type gravity waves. Temporal scales of wave motion and ramp-like coherent structures were observed to be comparable.     

Influence of non-flat terrain and wind direction shear on canopy turbulence

We have analyzed eddy covariance data collected within open canopy to investigate the influence of non-flat terrain and wind direction shear on the canopy turbulence. The study site is located on non-flat terrain with slopes in both south-north and east-west directions. The surface elevation change is smaller than the height of roughness element such as building and tree at this site. A variety of turbulent statistics were examined as a function of wind direction in near-neutral conditions. Heterogeneous surface characteristics results in significant differences in measured turbulent statistics. Upwind trees on the flat and up-sloping terrains yield typical features of canopy turbulence while upwind elevated surface with trees yields significant wind direction shear, reduced u and w skewness, and negligible correlation between u and w. The directional dependence of turbulence statistics is due that strong wind blows more horizontally rather than following terrain, and hence combination of slope related momentum flux and canopy eddy motion decreases the magnitude of Sk _w and r _uw for the downslope flow while it enhances them for the upslope flow. Significant v skewness to the west indicates intermittent downdraft of northerly wind, possibly due to lateral shear of wind in the presence of significant wind direction shear. The effects of wind direction shear on turbulent statistics were also examined. The results showed that correlation coefficient between lateral velocities and vertical velocity show significant dependence on wind direction shear through change of lateral wind shear. Quadrant analysis shows increased outward interaction and reduced role of sweep motion for longitudinal momentum flux for the downslope flow. Multi-resolution analysis indicates that uw correlation shows peak at larger averaging time for the upslope flow than for the downslope flow, indicating that large eddy plays an active role in momentum transfer for the upslope flow. On the other hand, downslope flow shows larger velocity variances than other flows despite similar wind speed. These results suggest that non-flatness of terrain significantly influences on canopy-atmosphere exchange.     

Line-source carbon dioxide release

Model predictions of CO₂ concentrations downwind from a line source were calibrated using experimental data. Agreement between the model and experimental data was improved by adjusting for wind direction meander and cup anemometer overshoot. The model predictions showed that by using a negative exponential wind speed profile within the crop canopy, predictions were closer to observed CO₂ concentration profiles than when experimentally-observed wind speed profiles, which were constant with height in the lower canopy, were used. This finding suggests that much of the lower canopy airflow was not direct mass flow in the downwind direction. Eddy diffusivity profiles which showed a within-canopy local minimum resulted in arestriction in the predicted loss of CO₂ out of the canopy system. Two-dimensional plots of predicted null vertical flux and CO₂ concentration portrayed vividly the turbulent diffusion and mass flow transport of CO₂ from the line source.     

Buoyancy and The Sensible Heat Flux Budget Within Dense Canopies

In contrast to atmospheric surface-layer (ASL) turbulence, a linear relationship between turbulent heat fluxes (F_T) and vertical gradients of mean air temperature within canopies is frustrated by numerous factors, including local variation in heat sources and sinks and large-scale eddy motion whose signature is often linked with the ejection-sweep cycle. Furthermore, how atmospheric stability modifies such a relationship remains poorly understood, especially in stable canopy flows. To date, no explicit model exists for relating F_T to the mean air temperature gradient, buoyancy, and the statistical properties of the ejection-sweep cycle within the canopy volume. Using third-order cumulant expansion methods (CEM) and the heat flux budget equation, a “diagnostic” analytical relationship that links ejections and sweeps and the sensible heat flux for a wide range of atmospheric stability classes is derived. Closure model assumptions that relate scalar dissipation rates with sensible heat flux, and the validity of CEM in linking ejections and sweeps with the triple scalar-velocity correlations, were tested for a mixed hardwood forest in Lavarone, Italy. We showed that when the heat sources (S_T) and F_T have the same sign (i.e. the canopy is heating and sensible heat flux is positive), sweeps dominate the sensible heat flux. Conversely, if S_T and F_T are opposite in sign, standard gradient-diffusion closure model predict that ejections must dominate the sensible heat flux.     

Some methodological questions concerning advection measurements: a case study

A dataset from two campaigns conducted at the Vielsalm experimental site in Belgium was used as a basis for discussing some methodological problems and providing intermediate results on estimating CO₂ advection. The analysis focused on the horizontal [CO₂] gradient and on the vertical velocity w, the variables most affected by uncertainty. The sampling error for half-hourly horizontal [CO₂] gradients was estimated to be 1.3 μmol mol⁻¹. Despite this important random error for half-hour estimations of [CO₂], the mean horizontal [CO₂] gradients in advective conditions were shown to be representative at the ecosystem scale and to extend only to the lowest part of a drainage sub-layer, which developed in the trunk space. By contrast, under daytime conditions, this gradient was shown to be more sensitive to local source heterogeneities. The estimation of the short-term averaged vertical velocity ( was the greater source of error when computing advection terms. The traditional correction methods used to obtain are discussed and a (co)sine correction is tested to highlight the instrumental origin of the offset in w. A comparison of measurements by sonic anemometers placed close together above the canopy showed that the uncertainty on was 0.042 m s⁻¹, which is of the same order of magnitude as the velocity itself. In addition, as the drainage sub-layer is limited to the lowest part of the canopy, the representativeness of is questionable. An alternative computation using the divergence of the horizontal wind speed in the trunk space produced a estimation that was four times lower than the single-point measurement. However, this value gives a more realistic estimate of the vertical advection term and improves the CO₂ budget closure at the site.     

Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes

Summary A model for the canopy – planetary boundary layer flow and scalar transport based on E- closure was applied to estimate footprint for CO₂ fluxes over different inhomogeneous landscapes. Hypothetical heterogeneous vegetation patterns – forest with clear-cuts as well as hypothetical heterogeneous relief – a bell-shaped valley and a ridge covered by forest were considered. The distortions of airflow caused by these heterogeneities are shown – the upwind deceleration of the flow at the ridge foot and above valley, acceleration at the crest and the flow separation with the reversed flow pattern at lee slopes of ridge and valley. The disturbances induce changes in scalar flux fields within the atmospheric surface layer comparing to fluxes for homogeneous conditions: at a fixed height the fluxes vary as a function of distance to disturbance. Correspondingly, the flux footprint estimated from model data depends on the location of the point of interest (flux measurement point) and may significantly deviate from that for a flat terrain. It is shown that proposed method could be used for the choice of optimal sensor position for flux measurements over complex terrain as well as for the interpretation of data for existing measurement sites. To illustrate the latter the method was applied for experimental site in Solling, Germany, taking into account the complex topography and vegetation heterogeneities. Results show that in certain situations (summer, neutral stratification, south or north wind) and for a certain sensor location the assumptions of idealized air flow structure could be used for measurement interpretation at this site, though in general, extreme caution should be applied when analytical footprint models are used in the interpretation of flux measurements over complex sites.     

Scalar Transport over Forested Hills

Numerical simulations of scalar transport in neutral flow over forested ridges are performed using both a 1.5-order mixing-length closure scheme and a large-eddy simulation. Such scalar transport (particularly of CO₂) has been a significant motivation for dynamical studies of forest canopy–atmosphere interactions. Results from the 1.5-order mixing-length simulations show that hills for which there is significant mean flow into and out of the canopy are more efficient at transporting scalars from the canopy to the boundary layer above. For the case with a source in the canopy this leads to lower mean concentrations of tracer within the canopy, although they can be very large horizontal variations over the hill. These variations are closed linked to flow separation and recirculation in the canopy and can lead to maximum concentrations near the separation point that exceed those over flat ground. Simple scaling arguments building on the analytical model of Finnigan and Belcher (Q J Roy Meteorol Soc 130:1–29, 2004) successfully predict the variations in scalar concentration near the canopy top over a range of hills. Interestingly this analysis suggests that variations in the components of the turbulent transport term, rather than advection, give rise to the leading order variations in scalar concentration. The scaling arguments provide a quantitative measure of the role of advection, and suggest that for smaller/steeper hills and deeper/sparser canopies advection will be more important. This agrees well with results from the numerical simulations. A large-eddy simulation is used to support the results from the mixing-length closure model and to allow more detailed investigation of the turbulent transport of scalars within and above the canopy. Scalar concentration profiles are very similar in both models, despite the fact that there are significant differences in the turbulent transport, highlighted by the strong variations in the turbulent Schmidt number both in the vertical and across the hill in the large-eddy simulation that are not represented in the mixing-length model.     

On the relationship between the eddy covariance,the turbulent flux,and surface exchange for a trace gas such as CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>

In the context of CO₂ surface exchange estimation, an analysis combining the basic principles of diffusion and scalar conservation shows that the mixing ratio is the appropriate variable both for defining the (eddy covariance) turbulent flux and also for expressing the relationship between the turbulent flux and surface exchange in boundary-layer budget equations. Other scalar intensity variables sometimes chosen, both the CO₂ density and molar fraction, are susceptible to the influence of surface exchange of heat and water vapour. The application of a hypsometric analysis to the boundary-layer “control volume” below the tower measurement height reveals flaws in previously applied approaches: (a) incompressibility cannot be assumed to simplify mass conservation (the budget in terms of CO₂ density); (b) compressibility alone makes the analysis of mass conservation vulnerable to uncertainties associated with resultant non-zero vertical velocities too small to measure or model over real terrain; and (c) the WPL (Webb et al. (1980) Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 106:85–100) “zero dry air flux” assumption is invalidated except at the surface boundary. Nevertheless, the definition and removal of the WPL terms do not hinge upon this last assumption, and so the turbulent CO₂ flux can be accurately determined by eddy covariance using gas analysers of either open- or closed-path design. An appendix discusses the necessary assumptions and appropriate interpretations for deriving the WPL terms.     

A Case Study of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>, CO and Particles Content Evolution in the Suburban Atmospheric Boundary Layer Using a 2-μm Doppler DIAL,a 1-μm Backscatter Lidar and an Array of In-situ Sensors

A network of remote and in-situ sensors was deployed in a Paris suburb in order to evaluate the mesoscale evolution of the daily cycle of CO₂ and related tracers in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and its relation to ABL dynamics and nearby natural and anthropogenic sources and sinks. A 2-μm heterodyne Doppler differential absorption lidar, which combines measurements of, (1) structure of the atmosphere, (2) radial velocity, and (3) CO₂ differential absorption was a particularly unique element of the observational array. We analyse the differences in the diurnal cycle of CO, CO₂, lidar reflectivity (a proxy for aerosol content) and H₂O using the lidar, airborne measurements in the free troposphere and ground-based measurements made at two sites located few kilometres apart. We demonstrate that vertical mixing dominates the early morning drawdown of CO and aerosol content trapped in the former nocturnal layer but not the H₂O and CO₂ mixing ratio variations. Surface fluxes, vertical mixing and advection all contribute to the ABL CO₂ mixing ratio decrease during the morning transition, with the relative importance depending on the rate and timing of ABL rise. We also show evidence that when the ABL is stable, small-scale (0.1-km vertical and 1-km horizontal) gradients of CO₂ and CO are large. The results illustrate the complexity of inferring surface fluxes of CO₂ from atmospheric budgets in the stable boundary layer.     

The Influence of Advection on the Short Term CO 2 -Budget in and Above a Forest Canopy

An experimental micrometeorological set-up was established at the CARBOEURO-FLUX site in Tharandt, Germany, to measure all relevant variables for the calculation of the vertical and horizontal advective fluxes of carbon dioxide. The set-up includes two auxiliary towers to measure horizontal and vertical CO₂ and H₂O gradients through the canopy, and to make ultrasonic wind measurements in the trunk space. In combination with the long-term flux tower an approximately even-sided prism with a typical side-length of 50 m was established. It is shown that under stable (nighttime) conditions the mean advective fluxes have magnitudes on the same order as the daily eddy covariance (EC) flux, which implies that they play a significant, but not yet fully understood, role in the carbon budget equation. The two advective fluxes are opposite and seem to cancel each other at night (at least for these measurements). During the day, vertical advection tends to zero, while horizontal advection is still present implying a flow of CO₂ out of the control volume. From our measurements, a mean daily gain of 2.2 gC m^–2 d^–1 for the horizontal advection and a mean daily loss of 2.5 gC m^–2d^–1 for the vertical advection is calculated for a period of 20 days. However the large scatter of the advective fluxes has to be further investigated. It is not clear yet whether the large variability is natural or due to measurement errors and conceptual deficiencies of the experiment. Similar results are found in the few comparable studies.     

珠海凤凰山森林下垫面干季和湿季气象要素的对比分析与动量和感热交换系数的参数化研究

利用珠海凤凰山陆气相互作用观测塔站2014年11月至2016年5月的观测数据,对比分析了干湿季森林下垫面能量通量和气象要素的变化特征,分析了在不同稳定度下3个风向范围（315°～45°、45°～135°和135°～225°）的动量和感热交换系数随冠层表面风速的变化特征,并对动量和感热交换系数进行了参数化研究。结果表明:干季感热和潜热通量值相当,湿季潜热远大于感热。干季和湿季的夜晚都出现负感热现象,感热从大气向森林输送。相对湿度的变化幅度大,与该地气象状况密切相关,相对湿度的垂直梯度夜晚较大,白天较小。干季的气温垂直梯度比湿季的明显。风速在冬季变化平缓,夏季变化剧烈,低层风速随高度变化梯度明显,高层较紊乱。各高度风向差异不大。中性和近中性状态下,在风向为315°～45°、45°～135°和135°～225°时,动量交换系数C_dn分别为0.05、0.0055和0.022,感热交换系数C_hn分别为0.0055、0.003和0.004。在稳定和不稳定状态下,动量交换系数C_d、感热交换系数C_h随冠层表面风速v明显发生变化,稳定条件下,C_d、C_h随v的增大而增大;不稳定条件下,C_d、C_h随v的增大而减小。分不同风向对森林冠层C_d、C_h在稳定和不稳定条件下与v的关系进行了拟合,得到了参数化公式。