Environmental assessment of frozen common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) captured by Spanish fishing vessels in the Mauritanian EEZ

Mauritania, one of the most dependent fish trade nations in the world, has an important octopus fishery within its EEZ. Fishing treaties between the EU and this Sub-Saharan nation have permitted 24 Spanish cephalopod trawling vessels to target this species for its export as a frozen product, mainly to Spain, Italy and Japan. This article presents Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology in order to assess and compare the environmental impacts related to the capture, processing and exportation of packed frozen octopus from this fishery to the main importing nations. Environmental results show that frozen common octopus presented a remarkable dominance of the fishing vessel activities, due to the high energy intensity of the fishery and to the fact that these activities include harvesting, processing and preliminary packaging. Post-harvesting activities presented low relative contributions in all impact categories, minimizing the food mile effect of exporting to Japan, thanks to the slow transportation through marine freight of frozen octopus. The results for fishery-specific indicators showed regular trends for trawling fleets, with high discard and seafloor impact rates. Therefore, improvement actions focused on the minimization of energy use and fishery-specific impacts and the shift to less ozone layer damaging cooling agents are the main targets in order to improve the sustainability of this product, as long as the slow freighting characteristics of the imported product are maintained.     

The impact of community-based fisheries management (CBFM) on equity and sustainability of small-scale coastal fisheries in the Philippines

It was realized that with the increasing rate of deterioration of fisheries resource in the Philippines, there was no way the country could pursue a pathway of sustainable development. After enactment of the Local Government Code of 1991, the government actively promoted community-based fisheries management (CBFM) to conserve the coastal resources. The increased attention paid to community-based fisheries management has come about through experience of the poor performance of other approaches and through the study of traditional systems of community management of natural resources which have not only survived but also appear to perform better than the alternatives. This paper presents the results of a study to assess the impacts of CBFM projects in the Philippines, using meta-analysis, on the equity and sustainability of small-scale coastal fisheries. The outcomes indicate a positive impact of CBFM on the equity of both involvement in management and benefit sharing and sustainable management of fisheries resources through the investigation of effective magnitude (effect size) based on eight indicators. The positive summary effect sizes of participation, influence, control, access, and income conjunctly portrayed an improved equity in the fishing community by implementing CBFM. The positive summary effect sizes of compliance and conflict indicated an affirmative community and, therefore, sustainable fisheries management. While the negative summary effect size of resource revealed the difficulties in recovering fish abundance in a relatively short period of time. Also, ten years of implementation of CBFM was discovered as the minimum duration with perceived equity and sustainability improvement for most indicators.     

The use of a consequential perspective to upgrade the utility of Life Cycle Assessment for fishery managers and policy makers

Attributional LCA, which monitors specific production systems in steady state conditions, is increasingly used in fisheries to assess the environmental profile of fleets and seafood supply chains. However, this approach is not pertinent to assess the environmental consequences of (large scale) policies. In contrast, consequential LCA (CLCA) has been successfully implemented in other sectors to assess the expected changes in environmental impacts of a given production system and other (marginal) production systems that may be affected in response to changes driven by policy or strategic decisions. CLCA commonly combines LCA with economic models to simulate the interactions occurring between the analysed systems. However, the use of these models may not be the most appropriate approach to follow for fisheries. Hence, it seems feasible that CLCA should be combined with stock prediction tools rather than with economic models, to determine how changes in stock sizes and quota restrictions may cause variations in the environmental impact of fishing fleets.     

Fuel use and greenhouse gas emission implications of fisheries management: the case of the new england atlantic herring fishery

Commercial fisheries are heavily dependent upon the combustion of fossil fuels and as such contribute to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and the concomitant impact on the world's climate. The fuel use and greenhouse gas intensity of a fishery is a function of several variables. One that has not been previously investigated is the role of fisheries management. Using historical gear-specific fuel use and landings data, we employ scenarios to examine the potential impact that recent changes in the management of the New England fishery for Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) may have on fishery-related fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions. Specifically, we consider the direct effect of the seasonal ban of midwater trawling in favor of purse seine and fixed gears within Atlantic herring fishing Area 1A. We also evaluate the indirect effect of reductions to the Area 1A total allowable catch of Atlantic herring on the regional supply of bait and the resulting potential need to import bait herring from Canada. Our results indicate that because of the five-fold lower fuel intensity of purse seining, relative to midwater trawling (21 L/ton versus 108-118 L/ton), the seasonal ban on midwater trawling has the potential to markedly reduce overall fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the herring fishery. These results indicate that management decisions can strongly influence energy demands and resulting greenhouse gas emissions of fisheries. We urge those involved with fisheries management to take this into account when developing policy and management measures.     

Towards a typology of interactions between small-scale fisheries and global seafood trade

Fish and fish-related products are among the most highly traded commodities globally and the proportion of globally harvested fish that is internationally traded has steadily risen over time. Views on the benefits of international seafood trade diverge, partly as a result from adopting either an aggregate national focus or a focus on local market actors. However, both views generally assume that the trade in question is characterized by export of fisheries resources to international markets. This is potentially misleading as empirical evidence suggests that import of seafood can also have impacts on local SSF dynamics. A systematic analysis of the different ways in which local production systems connect to international seafood markets can therefore help shed more light on why small-scale fisheries exhibit such differences in outcomes as they engage in an increasingly global seafood trade. This paper conducts a synthesis across 24 cases from around the world and develops a typology of small-scale fisheries and how they connect to and interact with international seafood trade. The analysis is based on key features drawn from trade theory regarding how trade interacts with local production. The implications of the findings for social and ecological sustainability of small-scale fisheries are discussed with the aim of identifying further research topics which deserve attention to better inform trade policy for more sustainable fisheries and more just wealth distribution from their trade.     

The certification of small-scale fisheries

Eco-labeling is a market-driven mechanism to promote sustainable fisheries. The most widely used certification scheme for seafood eco-labeling is issued by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), but the MSC has been criticized for favoring large-scale industrial fisheries. The benefits from eco-labeling can potentially be significant, ranging from price premiums to enriched understanding of fisheries management among fishers; however, anecdotal evidence from MSC-certified fisheries across various countries highlights the struggle of many small-scale fisheries to meet the costs of certification. The lack of environmental awareness in domestic markets can impede the spread of MSC eco-labeling among small-scale fisheries. In the absence of consumer preferences for seafood sustainability, and without subsidies, the certification may not be an appropriate tool for small-scale seafood producers. Examination of the case of an MSC-certified small-scale fishery suggests some efforts to achieve economies of scale; multi-species fisheries can apply for MSC certification as a single unit of assessment, and fisheries can cooperate with neighboring fisheries that target the same fish stock to share assessment costs. In a market where no price premium has been generated, effective face-to-face marketing is pivotal. The MSC will need to be committed to pursuing price premiums in new markets if it is to extend its reach further to small-scale fisheries.     

Valuing seafood: The Peruvian fisheries sector

There are tradeoffs in managing fisheries, and ideally such tradeoffs should be known when setting fisheries policies. An aspect of this, which is rarely considered, is the spin-off effect of different fisheries: the economic and social benefits that fisheries generate through processing through distribution and on to the end consumer. This study evaluated the benefits generated in the Peruvian marine fisheries sector through a comprehensive value chain analysis, based on a newly-developed combined ecosystem-economic modeling approach, which was integrated in the widely-used Ecopath with Ecosim approach and software. The value chain was parameterized by extensive data collection through 35 enterprise types covering the marine fisheries sector in Peru, including the world's biggest single-species fishery for anchoveta. While anchoveta is what is known about Peruvian fisheries, the study finds that anchoveta accounts for only 31% of the sector contribution to GDP and for only 23% of the employment. Thus, while anchoveta indeed is the fundamental fish species in the Peruvian ecosystem, there are other fisheries to be considered for management. The study indicates that the economic multipliers for Peruvian fisheries were 2.9 on average over the industry, and that these varied surprisingly little between fleets and between seafood categories indicating that the multipliers can be used beyond Peru to generalize the spin-off effect of the value chain. Employment multipliers vary much more across types of fisheries, but also around an average of 2.9; here it was clear that longer value chains result in more employment.     

From krill to convenience stores: Forecasting the economic and ecological effects of fisheries management on the US West Coast

There is a need to better understand the linkages between marine ecosystems and the human communities and economies that depend on these systems. Here those linkages are drawn for the California Current on the US West Coast, by combining a fishery ecosystem model (Atlantis) with an economic model (IO-PAC) that traces how changes in seafood landings impact the broader economy. The potential effects of broad fisheries management options are explored, including status quo management, switching effort from trawl to other gears, and spatial management scenarios. Relative to Status Quo, the other scenarios here involved short-term ex-vessel revenue losses, primarily to the bottom trawl fleet. Other fleets, particularly the fixed gear fleet that uses pots and demersal longlines, gained revenue in some scenarios, though spatial closures of Rockfish Conservation Areas reduced revenue to fixed gear fleets. Processor and wholesaler revenue tracked trends in the bottom trawl fleet, which accounted for 58% of total landings by value. Income impacts (employee compensation and earnings of business owners) on the broader economy mirrored the revenue trends. The long-term forecast (15 years) from the Atlantis ecosystem model predicted substantial stock rebuilding and increases in fleet catch. The 15 year projection of Status Quo suggested an additional ∼$27 million in revenue for the fisheries sectors, and an additional $23 million in income and 385 jobs in the broader economy, roughly a 25% increase. Linking the ecological and economic models here has allowed evaluation of fishery management policies using multiple criteria, and comparison of potential economic and conservation trade-offs that stem from management actions.     

New implementing agreement under UNCLOS: A threat or an opportunity for fisheries governance?

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the relationship of the proposed new UNCLOS Implementing Agreement concerning the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction with the current legal framework concerning fisheries. It elaborates on selected elements that are under negotiations, namely: marine genetic resources, area-based management tools, including marine protected areas, as well as environmental impact assessments. Each of those elements is analyzed with particular emphasis being laid on the following issues. Firstly, how the current legal status quo in the relevant area looks like. Secondly, how the question of fisheries could be included in a future treaty and, thirdly, what bearing it could have on the current framework of the management of fisheries.The article concludes with the identification of possible fields where the new treaty could bring added value. However, some possible challenges are mentioned as well. They relate in particular to the fact that the mandate of negotiations underscores that they shall not ‘undermine existing legal instruments and frameworks and relevant global, regional and sectoral bodies’.     

Assessment of eco-labelling schemes for Pacific tuna fisheries

Developments in fisheries governance in recent decades—notably the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and its implementing agreements—have established a framework of principles, standards, institutions and regulations that is broader and more complex than traditional fisheries management, which has generally focused on individual target species. As this framework has evolved, a number of seafood eco-labelling schemes have also developed. These schemes aim to identify well-managed fisheries and give competitive advantage to their products, thus translating the environmental awareness of consumers into direct support for sustainable fishing practices. This paper evaluates a number of these schemes in the context of international fisheries governance principles and considers the conservation benefits that may result from sustainability certification of Pacific tuna fisheries. The paper briefly summarises developments in eco-labeling of Pacific tuna fisheries in relation to the evolution of fisheries management, where focus has shifted from the maximum sustainable yield of individual tuna species to ecosystem-based approaches that directly consider the broader environmental impacts of fishing. The paper discusses two different ‘Dolphin Safe’ eco-labels, the third-party scheme of the Earth Island Institute and the intergovernmental scheme of the Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program, and two broader eco-labels offering sustainability certification of fisheries, ‘Friend of the Sea’ and the ‘Marine Stewardship Council’. The role played by seafood-industry associations with sustainability claims, such as the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation, is also considered.     

Spatiotemporal modelling for policy analysis: Application to sustainable management of whale-watching activities

Anticipating the impacts of a new policy before implementation on a complex social–ecological system is a challenging task for managers and policymakers. This paper reports on the development and use of an agent-based model (ABM) dedicated to support marine park managers in their effort to devise policies to sustainably manage whale-watching activities. The ABM, called the Marine Mammal and Maritime Traffic Simulator (3MTSim), represents the spatiotemporal dynamics of marine mammals and navigation activities in and around the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park in Canada. In the context of updating the current regulations on whale-watching in the Marine Park, 3MTSim was run to evaluate the merits of a proposed set of rules compared to the current regulations. To do so, a set of variables related to policies’ impacts on the three spheres of sustainable development, namely the impact on whales (Environment), on whale-watching companies (Economy), and tourist experience (Society) was analysed. 3MTSim's simulations highlighted that the proposed rules are expected to improve the situation regarding whale conservation and tourist experience with only marginal impact on the whale-watching industry. In the proposed regulations, one rule is expected to be very influential on whale-watching activities. This rule limits to 10 the number of whale-watching boats allowed to stand within 926 m of any boat in observation mode. Assuming efficient law enforcement, 3MTSim predicts a significant decrease in overall boat concentration around whales in the Marine Park, which is one of the management objectives benefiting both whales and tourists. Interestingly, 3MTSim reveals that this rule could indirectly force some boats to observe second-choice whales present in higher abundance rather than some more attractive species scarcer in the region. This highlights the following management tradeoffs: Reducing boat exposure for the humpback whale and endangered blue whale is likely to increase it for the more abundant fin whale listed as of special concern (Canada's Species at Risk Act) and minke whale. This work demonstrates the utility of ABMs to support policy analysis in the context of sustainable management in a Marine Park. ABMs developed in close relationship with end-users are unarguably a tool of choice to manage complex social–ecological systems since they provide insight into phenomena hard or impossible to measure in the real system. Despite the labour intensive nature of their implementation, this investment is worth the effort.     

Raising the “Sunken Billions”: Financing the transition to sustainable fisheries

Long-term investment to drive the adoption of precautionary, adaptive and resilience-building fisheries management measures is urgently required, especially given the financially difficult transition period to reach sustainable fisheries. In this paper a case for investing in the recovery of large marine ecosystems is provided based on the future value of recovered fish stocks. It is argued that the current market-based sustainable seafood movement alone will not affect the scale of change needed and must be complemented by investment in fundamental conservation measures that will lead to the recovery of marine ecosystems and promote long-term sustainable use. A rationale for addressing the economically challenging transition period is provided and the basis of a new financial institution to finance the measures necessary for realising the economic, social and environmental benefits of large-scale fisheries reform is proposed.     

Modelling the physical impact of trawl components on the seabed and comparison with sea trials

Quantitative measurement of the response of benthic habitats to impact from towed fishing gears is of great importance to the ecosystem and the long-term management of sustainable fisheries. To date, most studies on the effects of trawling on the benthos have focussed on before/after, control/impact comparative studies. This research has proved important in terms of describing general trends and has identified taxa that suffer high levels of mortality, and habitat types where impact is the greatest. A limitation, however, to this comparative work is the lack of prediction-based methodology and it would be very beneficial to develop a more mechanistic approach that would allow trawling impact on the benthos to be estimated for a wider range of species and habitats. This paper is a first step in this approach and focuses on modelling the physical interaction between gear components and the seabed. In particular the penetration and disturbance to the seabed caused by (i) the roller clump of a twin trawl and (ii) a trawl door, are examined.A finite element (FE) model of the interaction of these components and the seabed is developed using the different soil models and features available within the Abaqus finite element software package. The resulting models are able to predict the penetration depth and sediment displacement associated with each gear component and the predictions are compared with the results obtained during sea trials. The sea trials were undertaken on two sediment types at depths accessible to scientific divers using SCUBA diving techniques who measured and profiled the physical alteration to the seabed following the passage of a roller clump and a trawl door. In addition, drag forces obtained from the sea trials are compared with numerical predictions of the drag related to the soil and the estimated fluid drag. Good agreement between the experimental trials and numerical simulations is found and hence this study provides the basis for investigation of the interaction of other components and sediment types.     

Fisheries in the context of marine spatial planning: Defining principal areas for fisheries in the German EEZ

A method is presented to define principal areas for fisheries at high spatial resolution applicable to be implemented into marine spatial planning procedures. Vessel monitoring system (VMS) data from 2005 to 2006 are acquired to determine vessel-based fishing effort. Principal areas for the German exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are defined as areas in which 75% of the effort of either year is carried out. Examples are given for the 5 most abundant fisheries in the German EEZ in terms of vessel-based effort, i.e. gill netting, pelagic trawling, demersal otter board trawling and beam trawling >300 and <300 HP. A historical comparison for demersal otter board trawling shows relative stability of spatial utilization patterns in the North Sea section of the EEZ.     

The long-term impacts of fisheries on epifaunal assemblage function and structure, in a Special Area of Conservation

Fisheries can have profound effects on epifaunal community function and structure. We analysed the results from five dive surveys (1975-1976, 1980, 1983, 2003 and 2007), taken in a Special Area of Conservation, Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland before and after a ten year period of increased trawling activity between 1985 and 1995. There were no detectable differences in the species richness or taxonomic distinctiveness before (1975-1983) and after (2003-2007) this period. However, there was a shift in the epifaunal assemblage between the surveys in 1975-1983 and 2003-2007. In general, the slow-moving, or sessile, erect, filter-feeders were replaced by highly mobile, swimming, scavengers and predators. There were declines in the frequency of the fished bivalve Aequipecten opercularis and the non-fished bivalves Modiolus modiolus and Chlamys varia and some erect sessile invertebrates between the surveys in 1975-1983 and 2003-2007. In contrast, there were increases in the frequency of the fished and reseeded bivalves Pecten maximus and Ostrea edulis, the fished crabs Cancer pagurus and Necora puber and the non-fished sea stars Asterias rubens, Crossaster papposus and Henricia oculata between the surveys in 1975-1983 and 2003-2007. We suggest that these shifts could be directly and indirectly attributed to the long-term impacts of trawl fishing gear, although increases in the supply of discarded bait and influxes of sediment may also have contributed to changes in the frequency of some taxa. These results suggest that despite their limitations, historical surveys and repeat sampling over long periods can help to elucidate the inferred patterns in the epifaunal community. The use of commercial fishing gear was banned from two areas in Strangford Lough in 2011, making it a model ecosystem for assessing the long-term recovery of the epifaunal community from the impacts of mobile and pot fishing gear.     

Introducing run-size driven fisheries management for the coastal fishery of Atlantic salmon: Preseason forecasts for policy makers

The Finnish coastal fishery of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the northern Baltic Sea is regulated using multi-annual, pre-fixed, opening dates of harvests that aim to enhance spawning escapement of early migrating wild salmon. Such an inflexible management regime does not set regulations that track varying run sizes of salmon. We introduce an array of computational intelligence techniques to estimate and forecast coastal run size and escapement of salmon into three spawning rivers in the northern Baltic Sea. Our results indicated that the present management pattern, driven largely by regional fisheries policy, contrasts greatly with a “run-size driven” (i.e. abundance-based) management approach. Introducing run-size driven management, i.e. setting regulations annually by tracking preseason forecasts, would better ensure adequate escapement and at the same time allow the maintenance of coastal catch at sustainable level. Setting regulations annually would allow effective harvesting in years when the run is high, and would effectively restrict harvests when the run is low.     

Disentangling seafood value chains: Tourism and the local market driving small-scale fisheries

Identifying socio-economic drivers of small-scale fisheries is a fundamental step to understand impacts and pressures on fishery resources, and the behaviour of seafood trade actors. It is especially relevant for developing countries where such information is usually lacking and fisheries management is greatly needed. To address this gap, this study maps the structure of value chains of fish and marine invertebrates caught by small-scale fisheries from São Vicente, Cape Verde (West Africa), and examines the main socio-economic drivers behind the seafood trade on the island. Specifically, it shows how drivers, such as tourism and the local market, shape the preferences for certain species and how they affect the distribution of income among actors involved in the seafood trade. To collect this information, interviews were done with fishers, small-scale traders, market vendors, and restaurant owners, in all fishing communities of the island of São Vicente, in 2015. Tourism and the local market drive the exploitation of a wide variety of marine species, from small demersal low trophic level fish and marine invertebrates, to large pelagic high trophic level fish species. Moreover, the local seafood market, and especially tourism dynamics, contribute to the unequal distribution of income among actor groups, benefiting mostly restaurant owners due to their direct access to tourist consumers. Such findings have implications for local fishery resources management, food security, and fishing communities’ livelihoods.     

Selling only sustainable seafood: Attitudes toward public regulation and retailer policies

This study investigates consumer attitudes toward stores selling only sustainable seafood in seven European countries. Using a split sample design, half of the respondents were asked if they would support new regulations requiring stores to sell only sustainable labeled seafood. The other half was asked if they would continue to buy their seafood at their preferred seafood store if the store implemented a new policy of selling only sustainable labeled seafood. Respondents were on average positive to new sustainability regulations that increased prices by less than 7%, and would on average not change store unless prices increased by more than 8%. Country differences are investigated and implications for private and public policies related to sustainability of seafood discussed.     

The rise of seafood awareness campaigns in an era of collapsing fisheries

The human appetite for seafood has intensified and so has overfishing and damage to marine ecosystems. Recently, the response to the fisheries crisis has included a considerable effort directed toward raising the seafood awareness of consumers in North America and Europe. The resulting campaigns aim to affect the seafood demand and to lead to a sustainable seafood supply. Though there are indicators of some regional successes, lack of support by the Asian market and the proliferation of self-serving seafood labels are but two of the many significant limitations of these campaigns. This contribution investigates the difficulties and successes of seafood awareness campaigns, as well as the need for indicators of campaign effectiveness.     

Putting the seafood in sustainable food systems

Increasing attention by consumers to the social and environmental dimensions of the food they eat has generated many different responses, including certification programs, watch lists and local/slow food movements. This article examines the more recent entry of seafood into these consumer social movements. Although a concern with the family farm—as well as tendency to equate national security with food security—has long connected terrestrial food production with other cultural concerns, fisheries have tended to be regarded more as natural resources. Considering seafood as part of the “food system” would enhance the management of fisheries, while the long engagement in fisheries with co- and adaptive management and the politics of knowledge would enrich the debate in the agri-foods literature. The article also offers suggestions on how fisheries management could better govern for sustainable food systems, and provides further ideas about food, sustainability and governance.