POTENTIAL PREDICTABILITY OF MONTHLY PRECIPITATION OVER CHINA*

In this paper,based on the data at 70 stations selected evenly over China for 31 years from 1961-1991.three methods to estimate climatic noise have been discussed and then the climatic noise and potential predictability of monthly precipitation(January.July.April and October)have been examined.The estimating of climatic noise is based on the method of Madden and improved methods of Trenberth and Yamamoto et al.(1985).The potential predictability is approximated by the ratio of the estimated interannual variation to the natural variation.Generally.the climatic noise of monthly precipitation over China has obvious seasonal variation and it is greater in summer than in winter,a bit greater in autumn than in spring.In most areas,the climatic noise is prominently decreasing from south to north and from coast to inland.The potential predictability of monthly precipitation also has obvious seasonal and regional difference,but the potential predictability is greater in winter than in summer in most parts of China.Whereas the comparison of spring and autumn is not obvious.Comparing with the method of Madden,the estimated values of climatic noise based on the improved methods of Trenberth and Yamamoto et al.are relatively lower.     

中国季降水量的气候噪声和潜在可预报性估计

利用中国130个测站1961—2004年的日降水量资料,使用低频白噪声延伸法和方差分析法估计了中国季降水量的气候噪声方差和潜在可预报性。结果表明：中国季降水量的气候噪声方差由南向北、由沿海向内陆逐渐减小,且有明显的季节变化,夏季最高,其次是春秋季,冬季最小,而且内陆的季节变化比东南沿海的季节变化显著。季降水量的潜在可预报性有较大的季节和区域差异,但总体来说,全国大部分地区的季降水量是潜在可预报的。以绝对误差小于均方差0.68倍作为预测正确标准,全国大部分地区季降水量的预报正确率上限为50%-60%。     

Climatic noise and potential predictability of monthly mean temperature over China

Summary In this paper, based on the data at 162 stations selected over China from 1960 to 1991 the climatic noise and potential predictability of monthly mean temperature have been studied. The method of estimating climatic noise is based on the idea of Yamamoto et al. (1985) and the potential predictability is expressed by the ratio of the estimated inter-annual variation to the estimated natural variation (or climatic noise). Generally the climatic noise of monthly mean temperature increases with latitude and altitude and varies with season. The continental air from Siberia and Mongolia plays a significant role and the ocean acts as an adjustor and a reductor in the climatic noise except for the tropical Pacific ocean in transitional season. The potential predictability is diversified from month to month and one station to another, but generally the monthly mean temperature over China is potentially predictable at statistical significance level 0.10. The results suggest that we could not ask a climate model to predict the climate with satisfactory results worldwide in all seasons and that the regional model could be a hopeful way to predict the climate.With 3 Figures     

中国月平均温度的气候噪声和潜在可预报性

利用中国74个测站1960～1991年日平均温度研究了中国月平均温度的气候噪声和潜在可预报性。气候噪声是在Yamamoto等人的思想基础上设计的方法估计的,而潜在可预报性则是用月平均温度的年际变化与自然变化（气候噪声）之比表示的。一般情况下中国月平均温度的气候噪声随纬度和高度增加而增加,并随季节变化而变化。来自西伯利亚和蒙古的变性大陆干冷气团对气候噪声有很大的影响,一般而言,海洋对气候噪声起着调节和减弱作用（除了热带海洋在春秋过渡季节外）。月平均温度的潜在可预报性有较大的季节和区域差异。但总的来说中国月平均温度在α＝0．10的统计显著性水平上是潜在可预报的。这些结果表明由于气候噪声和潜在可预报性有季节和区域的差异,所以不能要求用一个气候模式在任何时候对每一地区都得到满意的结果。要对各月的气候进行预报,需根据不同月份至少不同季节建立区域气候模式可能更有发展前景。     

A Modeling Study of Climatic Change and Its Implication for Agriculture in C

The trends and features of China’s climatic change in the past and future are analysed by applying station obser-vations and GCM simulation results. Nationally, the country has warmed by 0.3oC in annual mean air temperature and decreased by 5% in annual precipitation over 1951-1990. Regionally, temperature change has varied from a cooling of 0.3oC in Southwest China to a warming of 1.0oC in Northeast China. With the exception of South China, all regions of China have shown a declination in precipitation. Climatic change has the features of increasing remark-ably in winter temperature and decreasing obviously in summer precipitation. Under doubled CO2 concentration, climatic change in China will tend to be warmer and moister, with increases of 4.5oC in annual mean air temperature and 11% in annual precipitation on the national scale. Future climatic change will reduce the temporal and spatial differences of climatic factors.     

1961～2018年西北地区降水的变化特征

邻接青藏高原地区的中国西北地区是最大的欧亚干旱区,其降水变化对全球变化的响应和对干旱环境及其青藏高原气候变化都具有特殊的指示意义。基于1961～2018年中国西北地区144个站的逐日降水、逐月气温观测资料,分析了西北地区的降水变化特征及趋势。结果表明:（1）近60年以来,西北地区92%站点的年降水量呈现增加的趋势,只有甘肃东南部不到10%的站点呈下降趋势;（2）季节尺度上,春、夏、秋季中超过75%站点的降水呈现增加的趋势,但最显著的是,几乎所有站点在冬季的降水为增加趋势,秋、冬季降水的增加相对较少,反映了冬季风对西北地区降水影响的特点;（3）进入21世纪以来,西北地区夏季和年降水量仍然维持准3 a周期特征,春、秋季的周期具有阶段性、冬季降水量具有较稳定的约3 a周期,因此,自然周期变化对降水增加的贡献并不大。西北地区降水量在过去60年来确实呈现出增加趋势,尤其21世纪以来降水量持续增加,但增加的量是有限的,不足以改变其干旱半干旱的气候特征。     

The climatic characteristics of extreme precipitations for short-term intervals in the watershed of Lake Maggiore

Alpine and Mediterranean areas are undergoing a profound change in the typology and distribution of rainfall. In particular, there has been an increase in consecutive non-rainy days, and an escalation of extreme rainy events. The climatic characteristic of extreme precipitations over short-term intervals is an object of study in the watershed of Lake Maggiore, the second largest freshwater basin in Italy (located in the north-west of the country) and an important resource for tourism, fishing and commercial flower growing. The historical extreme rainfall series with high-resolution from 5 to 45 min and above: 1, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h collected at different gauges located at representative sites in the watershed of Lake Maggiore, have been computed to perform regional frequency analysis of annual maxima precipitation based on the L-moments approach, and to produce growth curves for different return-period rainfall events. Because of different rainfall-generating mechanisms in the watershed of Lake Maggiore such as elevation, no single parent distribution could be found for the entire study area. This paper concerns an investigation designed to give a first view of the temporal change and evolution of annual maxima precipitation, focusing particularly on both heavy and extreme events recorded at time intervals ranging from few minutes to 24 h and also to create and develop an extreme storm precipitation database, starting from historical sub-daily precipitation series distributed over the territory. There have been two-part changes in extreme rainfall events occurrence in the last 23 years from 1987 to 2009. Little change is observed in 720 min and 24-h precipitations, but the change seen in 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 120, 180 and 360 min events is significant. In fact, during the 2000s, growth curves have flattened and annual maxima have decreased.     

中国年和季各等级日降水量的变化趋势分析

通过对中国554个测站1961—2003年的日降水量数据进行线性回归,对我国全年和各个季节的总降水量和各级降水的线性趋势进行分析,并对两种不同的极端降水定义方法所得的变化趋势进行了比较。结果显示,全年总降水量在西北、长江中下游和华南地区具有明显的增加趋势,而在华北和四川盆地地区具有明显的减少趋势。分析各类降水的季节变化趋势可以发现,西北地区各个季节的日降水都是增加的,长江中下游地区的各类降水的增加趋势主要集中在夏季和冬季,而华北地区的各类降水在各个季节基本都呈减少趋势。极端降水趋势方面,西北、长江中下游、西南部分地区和华南沿海地区具有明显的增加趋势,而华北、四川盆地和东北部分地区则有明显的减少趋势。     

近40年内蒙古候降水变化趋势

基于1964—2003年内蒙古44个站日降水量数据,进行了前20年 (1964—1983年)、后20年 (1984—2003年) 候降水变化的聚类分析,得到了最佳聚类数和各聚类的台站组成及其空间分布情况,对前20年和后20年候降水中值的变化情况、候最大降水量出现时间、各聚类的整体特征等进行了分析,并进行了候 (5 d) 和11 d降水中值极图的对比。结果表明:内蒙古不同地区的候降水变化格局存在经向地带性,但站点海拔的差异使这种地带性有所模糊;前、后两个20年候降水的变化格局较为复杂,大多数站点在一些候降水有显著变化,既有降水显著增加的候,也有降水显著减少的候;候最大降水出现的时间和量值有一定变化。     

Climatology and trends of wet spells in China

Summary Climatological features and variations of wet spells, especially their trends over China, are investigated using a dataset of 594 meteorological stations across China from 1951 to 2003. The results show that the lower the latitude is, the longer the annual duration of wet spells is. The mean annual precipitation from wet spells is higher in southeastern coastal areas and much lower in western and northern China. The longest wet spells are found in Southwest China and the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The maximum daily precipitation of wet spells decreases from the southeast to the northwest, with the highest in southeastern coastal areas and the lowest in western China. The trends of wet spells exhibit striking regional differences. In most areas of western China, the annual number of days in wet spells has slightly increased, but significantly decreased over North China, Central China and Southwest China. The annual precipitation amount from wet spells displays significant downward trends in North China, eastern Northeast China and the eastern part of Southwest China, but upward trends in the eastern Tibetan Plateau and some southeastern coastal areas. Two clearly-contrasting regions in climatic changes of wet spells are the mid-lower reaches of the Yellow River and the eastern Tibetan Plateau, characterized by a decrease of about 24 days and an increase of about 6 days in annual wet spell days from 1953 to 2003, respectively.     

Modeling of the Second Indirect Effect of Anthropogenic Aerosols in East Asia

This study investigated the second indirect climatic effect of anthropogenic aerosols,including sulfate,organic carbon(OC) ,and black carbon(BC) ,over East Asia.The seasonal variation of the climatic response to the second indirect effect was also characterized.The simulation period for this study was 2006.Due to a decrease in autoconversion rate from cloud water to rain as a result of aerosols,the cloud liquid water path(LWP) ,and radiative flux(RF) at the top of the atmosphere(TOA) changed dramatically,increasing by 14.3 g m-2 and decreasing by-4.1 W m-2 in terms of domain and annual average.Both LWP and RF changed most in autumn. There were strong decreases in ground temperature in Southwest China,the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in spring and autumn,while maximum cooling of up to-1.5 K occurred in the Chongqing district.The regional and annual mean change in ground temperature reached-0.2 K over eastern China.In all seasons except summer,precipitation generally decreased in most areas north of the Yangtze River,whereas precipitation changed little in South China.Precipitation changed most in summer,with alternating bands of increasing(～40 mm) and decreasing(～40 mm) precipitation appearing in eastern China.Precipitation decreased by 1.5-40 mm over large areas of Northeast China and the Huabei Plain.The domain and annual mean change in precipitation was approximately-0.3 mm over eastern China.The maximum reduction in precipitation occurred in summer,with mean absolute and relative changes of-1.2 mm and-3.8%over eastern China.This study revealed considerable climate responses to the second indirect effect of aerosols over specific regions of China.     

Recent Progress in Studies of Climate Change in China

An overview of basic research on climate change in recent years in China is presented. In the past 100 years in China, average annual mean surface air temperature (SAT) has increased at a rate ranging from 0.03℃ (10 yr)-1 to 0.12℃ (10 yr)-1 . This warming is more evident in northern China and is more significant in winter and spring. In the past 50 years in China, at least 27% of the average annual warming has been caused by urbanization. Overall, no significant trends have been detected in annual and/or summer precipitation in China on a whole for the past 100 years or 50 years. Both increases and decreases in frequencies of major extreme climate events have been observed for the past 50 years. The frequencies of extreme temperature events have generally displayed a consistent pattern of change across the country, while the frequencies of extreme precipitation events have shown only regionally and seasonally significant trends. The frequency of tropical cyclone landfall decreased slightly, but the frequency of sand/dust storms decreased significantly. Proxy records indicate that the annual mean SAT in the past a few decades is the highest in the past 400-500 years in China, but it may not have exceeded the highest level of the Medieval Warm Period (1000-1300 AD). Proxy records also indicate that droughts and floods in eastern China have been characterized by continuously abnormal rainfall periods, with the frequencies of extreme droughts and floods in the 20th century most likely being near the average levels of the past 2000 years. The attribution studies suggest that increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere are likely to be a main factor for the observed surface warming nationwide. The Yangtze River and Huaihe River basins underwent a cooling trend in summer over the past 50 years, which might have been caused by increased aerosol concentrations and cloud cover. However, natural climate variability might have been a main driver for the mean and extreme precipitation variations observed over the past century. Climate models generally perform well in simulating the variations of annual mean SAT in China. They have also been used to project future changes in SAT under varied GHG emission scenarios. Large uncertainties have remained in these model-based projections, however, especially for the projected trends of regional precipitation and extreme climate events.     

1981-2008年中国陆地植被NPP对气候变化响应的敏感性试验

在验证CENTURY模型对中国陆地植被净初级生产力(Net Primary Productivity,NPP)模拟能力的基础上,利用该模型探讨了1981-2008年中国陆地植被NPP的年际变异和变化趋势对CO₂浓度、温度和降水变化的响应。结果表明,中国陆地植被NPP对不同气候因子的响应程度存在明显不同。其中,CO₂浓度变化对植被NPP年际变异的影响不显著,但能够引起中国大部分地区植被NPP趋势系数增大;温度对中国中高纬度地区植被NPP的年际变化影响显著,但就全国范围而言,植被NPP年际变异对温度变化的响应程度总体低于对降水变化的响应程度;降水变化是对中国植被NPP变化趋势起主导作用的气候因子。此外,综合考虑温度和降水变化的影响发现,植被NPP变化趋势的响应特征类似于降水单独变化时植被NPP变化趋势的响应特征。     

Decreasing precipitation occurs in daily extreme precipitation intervals across China in observations and model simulations

Extreme precipitation response to increasing temperature includes not only changes of frequency and intensity, but also changes of extreme precipitation interval (EPIV) and the precipitation during the neighboring daily extreme precipitations interval (EPIP). These changes have not been fully evaluated yet in observations or climate model simulations although they are very useful to understand variations of extreme precipitation. We used daily precipitation data from 669 meteorological stations during the past five decades across China and projections of 19 general circulation models from CMIP5 under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios to investigate variations of EPIV and EPIP. We found the national average annual EPIV increased across China during the last five decades, while annual EPIP significantly decreased. The decreases mainly occurred in southwest China, east China, and southeast China. At national and regional scales, the average annual EPIV and EPIP showed greater decreases under the RCP8.5 scenario than those under the RCP4.5 scenario from 2006 to 2100. Annual EPIP showed a stronger correlation with extreme precipitation intensity than EPIV. The national average annual EPIP had a significant positive correlation with the Western Pacific Subtropical High Area Index. The abnormal geopotential heights over western Mongolia and the western Pacific at 500 hpa as well as the abnormal SSTs in Japan Sea and the western of Pacific in rainy seasons would result in abnormal annual EPIVs and EPIPs in China. This study may provide references for flooding prediction, water resources management, and disaster prevention and mitigation.     

极端降水事件变化的观测研究

回顾了气候变化背景下的极端降水事件变化观测研究的主要进展,结合全球变化的特点,重点讨论了中国极端降水事件的变化特征。指出：最近50多年,我国降水强度普遍趋于增加,降水日数除西北地区外其他大部分地区显著减少。极端降水与总降水量变化之间的关系很密切,西北西部、长江及长江以南地区极端强降水事件趋于频繁,华北地区虽然极端降水事件频数明显减少,但极端降水量占总降水量的比例仍有所增加。连阴雨产生的年降水量在华北、东北东部和西南东部地区明显减小,在青藏高原东部和一些东南沿海地区则增加。降水日数和微量降水日数减少是近年来我国干旱化趋势发展的一个重要特点。     

云南地区季降水量和气温的潜在可预报性分析

利用云南地区42年气候资料,使用低频白噪声延伸法和方差分析方法,估计了该地区季节降水量和季节气温的气候噪声方差和潜在可预报性。分析结果表明：（1）云南季降水量的气候噪声方差随着季节降水量的增加而增加,空间上主要是由南往北减小,夏季降水量的气候噪声方差显著大于其他季节,季气温的气候噪声方差则随着季节气温的减小而增加,空间上春、冬季由东往西减小而夏、秋季由南往北增加;冬季气温的气候噪声方差显著大于其他季节;（2）云南季降水量和季气温的潜在可预报性同样具有显著的季节变化和空间变化,云南春季的降水量和气温的潜在可预报性均显著大于其他季节,夏季降水量和气温的潜在可预报性均较其他三个季节小;春、秋季降水量潜在可预报性西部大于东部,夏季北部大于南部,冬季则是南部大于北部,云南季气温除夏季外均是西部大于东部。（3）季风和冷空气活动可能对云南地区的季降水量和气温的潜在可预报性有重要影响。     

夏季青藏高原低值系统与地气温差及我国降水的联系

基于青藏高原低涡和切变线（简称高原低值系统）年鉴、国家气象站地面观测资料及ERA-Interim再分析资料,分析了高原低值系统多、少发年夏季高原地气温差变化的差异及其对我国降水的影响。结果表明:（1）高原夏季地气温差对高原低值系统的发生和移动有明显的影响。在低值系统频发区,多发年的地气温差明显比少发年高。（2）我国西部的青藏高原中部、东北部及西南地区在多发年降水偏多,高原南部和东南部则在少发年降水偏多;我国东部地区,多、少发年降水差异自南至北呈“+”、“?”、“+”、“?”、“+”的差值带分布特征,即华南、江淮流域、华北和东北地区降水在多发年偏多,江南地区和黄淮流域降水则在少发年偏多。（3）高原低值系统多、少发年夏季对流层的环流系统及相应垂直速度、水汽输送变化有明显差异,并影响青藏高原和我国降水的变化。在高原地区,多、少发年之间环流的差异是受高原东部和南部的气流辐合（辐散）场、相应的垂直运动差值上升（下沉）、水汽输送辐合（辐散）区域变化的影响;在东部地区,则是受南海到华南、长江流域、华北到东北为气旋（反气旋）环流系统及其间辐合（辐散）带变化的影响。      

Some statistical characteristics of precipitation in Europe

Summary This paper presents an analysis and discussion of some rainfall characteristics of the European continent. Harmonic and Spectral Analysis are applied to monthly and annual precipitation data derived from 50 selected European meteorological stations. The Harmonic Analysis reveals that the sum of the first and second harmonic describes satisfactorily the mean annual precipitation regime, while the time of maximum of the first harmonic coincides with the time of the observed mean annual maximum of precipitation, almost everywhere. Spectral Analysis reveals the existence of QBO and ENSO signals in some different areas of Europe, while the eleven-year cycle of sunspots seem to have no effect on precipitation across the European continent. Climatic noise is also examined. The lowest values of climatic noise are found in the British Islands and in France, whilst relatively high values are found in the cyclogenetic region of the Gulf of Genoa. An increase in climatic noise has been identified over Mediterranean coastal areas during the summer. Authors’ address: A. F. Karagiannidis, A. A. Bloutsos, P. Maheras, Ch. Sachsamanoglou, Department of Meteorology and Climatology, School of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece.     

影响中国及关键经济区热带气旋降水的气候趋势及极端性特征

本文利用中国气象局上海台风研究所整编的《热带气旋年鉴》(1951~2010年)最佳路径资料,分析影响我国和关键经济区热带气旋(TC)降水量、降水强度以及不同等级降水TC频数的气候变化趋势,研究结果表明,影响全国的TC总降水量的年际变化幅度大,年际差异显著。长江三角洲、珠江三角洲地区影响TC过程雨量年极值自1970年代开始缓慢上升,表明近年来TC引起的极端性降水存在增加的可能。全国范围内自1970年代开始,过程雨量大于250 mm的TC频数也在增加,但长江三角洲、珠江三角洲地区发生极端性降水的TC频数并没有明显的增长。TC造成的24小时降水极值的气候变化趋势不明显,但是1980年代全国范围内的24小时降水极值存在跃变。长江三角洲、珠江三角洲地区日降水极值超过250 mm的TC频数自1980年代开始有缓慢增加趋势。全国范围、长江三角洲及珠江三角洲内TC小时降雨量年极值呈现振荡的周期变化,而在年代际上没有明显的变化趋势。     

2018年夏季我国极端降水及滑坡泥石流灾害预测

基于动力降尺度预测系统,中国科学院大气物理研究所竺可桢-南森国际研究中心对2018年夏季我国极端降水日数及滑坡泥石流灾害的发生风险进行了超前4个月的实时预测试验。与实测结果相比,该系统对2018年夏季我国极端降水日数空间分布的预测与实况基本相符,但大部分地区存在明显低估;滑坡泥石流的预测结果与目前统计的由于降水引发的滑坡泥石流灾害事件的分布基本吻合。此次预测试验表明,中国科学院大气物理研究所竺可桢-南森国际研究中心发展的动力降尺度预测系统对我国夏季极端降水和滑坡泥石流灾害具有一定的预测能力,具有实时预测价值。