洱海流域生态系统质量变化及其对气候因子的响应

利用多源遥感数据和气象观测数据,基于生态系统生产力指数(EPI)、稳定性指数(ESI)和承载力指数(EBCI),构建遥感综合评价模型,就洱海流域2005—2020年的生态系统质量进行量化研究,并分析其变化与气候因子的相关性。结果表明：洱海流域生态系统质量综合指数(EQCI)均值为56.49(总分100),EPI、ESI和EBCI三项指数均值分别为49.05、74.16和56.97,可见洱海流域生态系统稳定性较好,16 a间EPI、ESI、EBCI和EQCI均呈上升趋势。不同生态系统间,生态质量水平从大到小为：森林>草地>农田>城镇>湿地>水体。当土地类型转变为城镇类型会对生态系统质量带来一定负面影响。草地、森林和农田生态系统中气温和降水与EQCI多呈正相关关系,城镇生态系统中气温与EQCI多呈负相关关系。     

溱湖湿地生态系统服务价值评估研究

利用实地调研结果,结合相关文献资料,采用市场价值法、影子工程法、旅行费用法等评估方法,对溱湖湿地生态系统的物质生产、涵养水源和调蓄洪水、提供动植物栖息地、调节气候、降解污染物和科考旅游等6个效益最为突出的生态系统服务功能经济价值指标进行评估。研究表明：溱湖湿地生态系统的总价值为1.15×109元,其中直接使用价值为7.708×108元,间接使用价值为3.62×108元,非使用价值为0.18×108元。其中科考旅游价值所占比重最大,为40.84％,调节气候价值次之,而生物多样性保护价值仅占1.45%。对溱湖湿地生态系统服务功能及服务价值的探讨,可正确认识该生态系统的生态经济价值,为合理开发利用提供决策参考,确保其资源的可持续利用。     

若尔盖湿地潜在蒸散量演变特征及影响因素分析

蒸散发是湿地水文过程重要组成部分,影响着湿地的水文生态系统。以若尔盖湿地为研究区,基于湿地及其周边6个气象站1963—2013年逐日气象观测资料,采用FAO推荐的Penman-Monteith公式估算了站点与湿地的潜在蒸散量(ET0),并分别从趋势性、突变性以及周期性角度分析了ET0的时空演变特征,进一步探讨了ET0与其主要影响因素的关系。结果表明,若尔盖湿地季节和年际ET0在时间尺度上均表现出增加的趋势,其中夏、秋季和年际尺度下,增加非常显著;在空间尺度上,表现出不同程度的增加趋势,其中增加非常显著的地区,在秋季表现为整个区域,年际尺度下则贯穿于整个东、西部;同时,若尔盖湿地呈现出较为明显的暖干化的趋势。春、冬季和年尺度ET0的突变年份均为2002年,而夏季和秋季则分别在1988年和1997年左右发生突变;春、夏、秋季以及年际尺度下,ET0变化的第一主周期可能为28年,冬季则为22年;此外,春、秋、冬季以及年尺度下,ET0的第一影响要素以温度为主,夏季则为日照时数。不同站点间,以冬季若尔盖和红原站最为突出,相对湿度为ET0的第一主要影响因素。研究以期为进一步探讨若尔盖湿地气候与生态环境的变化提供科学依据。     

洞庭湖气象生态服务:过去、现在和未来

正作为我国最大的内陆湖泊湿地生态系统之一,洞庭湖湿地具有极为重要的生态功能和经济价值,在全球气候变化的大背景下,洞庭湖生态受到多方面的影响,洞庭湖生物多样性保持、湿地气候调节、洪涝调蓄能力等均面临着挑战。通过分析过去70年洞庭湖湿地气候(图1)、水文与生态系统发展变化背景,梳理了围绕洞庭湖生态保护和修复开展气象服务的技术路线和服务成果,并展望了卫星遥感技术在洞庭湖湿地生态修复气象服务中的前景。     

主编语

正与长江相连的洞庭湖是我国第二大淡水湖,从地理角度看也是一个重要的参照物,湖北省位于洞庭湖以北,故名为湖北,湖南省境绝大部分位于洞庭湖以南,故称为湖南。为了加强洞庭湖流域生态环境保护,统筹平衡该区域经济与生态的协调发展,2014年4月,国务院正式批复了《洞庭湖生态经济区规划》。岳阳市作为拥有洞庭湖水域面积近60%的沿湖城市,在洞庭湖生态经济区建设中承担着重要责任。岳阳市气象局近年来在水体气象监测、水上气象服务、湿地生态观测、城市防汛预报预警等方面开展了富有湖区特色的工作。本期以"刊中刊"形式推出的"洞庭湖生态气象"主题专辑,刊登了以岳阳市气象局科技人员为主开展的与洞庭湖区域生态文明建设气象保障服务有关的最新研究成果。作为我国最大的内陆湖泊湿地生态系统之一,洞庭湖湿地具有极为重要的生态功能和经济价值(P72);在全球气候变化     

沈阳市城乡梯度湿地水体碳氮磷含量变化研究

湿地是人类生存和发展的重要环境之一,然而城镇化在带动经济发展的同时也严重影响了湿地生态系统。本文利用城乡梯度研究方法结合湿地分布特征,设置从沈阳城市中心到城市边缘的研究样带,沿着城镇密集区（浑河）—郊区（蒲河）—乡村（卧龙湖,仙子湖）梯度带选取典型湖泊和河流湿地样地为研究对象,系统分析城镇化对湿地水体碳氮磷含量的影响。研究发现湿地水体碳氮磷含量与城乡梯度具有相关性,总碳（TC）和可溶性有机碳（DOC）含量及SUVA₂₈₀值沿城镇密集区—郊区—乡村梯度带逐渐增加,即远离市中心的乡村卧龙湖湿地最高,分别为（120.68±2.34）mg/L,（41.56±6.27）mg/L和（0.35±0.10）L/(mg·m),显著高于位于四环以外乡村仙子湖湿地、流经沈阳市四环蒲河和穿越三环浑河湿地水体。湿地水体氮磷含量总体上沿着城乡梯度带呈降低趋势,但蒲河湿地水体总氮（TN）和总磷（TP）含量最高,分别为（5.35±0.19）mg/L和（1.45±0.07）mg/L,显著高于位于城镇密集区的浑河湿地水体。城镇化作用总体上增加了湿地水体铵态氮（NH₄⁺-N）和硝态氮（NO₃^--N）含量,其中,横穿城镇密集区的浑河湿地水体NH₄⁺-N含量最高,为（1.28±0.14）mg/L;NO₃^--N含量则是位于郊区的蒲河湿地水体最高,为(1.42±0.15) mg/L。研究结果表明城镇化改变了湿地生态系统水体碳氮磷含量,使水体DOC含量降低,小分子化合物增多,不利于DOC在水体中的累积;同时由于人类活动的加剧也使氮磷排放增加,使水体氮磷超标,导致流经城镇密集区部分的浑河和蒲河湿地NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N含量高于乡村。未来随着城镇化的不断发展,应严加控制和合理规划,防止城镇化导致的湿地水体污染和生态系统的破坏。     

典型温带针阔叶混交林碳收支对温度的响应特征

森林生态系统是一个庞大的碳储备系统,在当前气候变暖条件下,温度变化会对森林生态系统的碳收支过程产生重要影响。该文选择长白山温带针阔混交林森林生态系统（CBS）作为研究对象,利用多年通量及小气候观测资料分析该生态系统碳收支过程对温度的响应特征,结果显示该温带森林碳交换的季节变化特征十分明显。生态系统总初级生产力GPP、生态系统呼吸R_e和净生态系统碳交换NEE在2003—2008年的月平均变化显示,碳收支3个组分最大值均出现在夏季,GPP最大值出现在7月,R_e最大值主要出现在8月,NEE负方向的最大值主要出现在6月或7月,表现为碳吸收。在日尺度和月尺度对温度的响应上,GPP和R_e都是随温度（气温和5 cm土壤温度）呈显著的指数升高形式。在日尺度上和月尺度上, NEE对气温的响应皆是分段线性形式,先是随气温的上升而正向增大,表现为碳排放;当超过临界温度,随气温的继续上升而负值增大,表现为碳吸收。根据温度、GPP、R_e以及NEE的季节的变化,每年达到最大的GPP、R_e以及NEE的最适温度均不同,这表明了在气温变化的背景下,生态系统的最适温度也在随之改变,也表明了不考虑其它因素的影响,在气候变暖的背景下,长白山针阔混交林森林生态系统的GPP、R_e随气温的升高增大,而NEE随气温的升高而减小。     

云南省陆地生态系统和土地利用类型的NDVI时空变化特征

研究不同陆地生态系统和土地利用类型的归一化植被指数(NDVI)时空变化特征,不仅可揭示基准年以来各生态系统和土地利用类型的变化情况,而且可为云南不同生态区的保护提供科学依据。基于SPOT-VEGETATION NDVI数据,利用一元回归和相关分析等方法,在ArcGIS平台下分析1999-2013年云南NDVI时空变化的基础上,以2000年云南陆地生态系统和土地利用为基准年,重点分析植被指数变化显著区域的各类陆地生态系统和土地利用类型NDVI的变化情况。结果表明,云南省国土面积六成以上区域的植被指数出现了显著的上升趋势,局部地区出现了下降趋势,其中,昆明、玉溪、红河、大理、德宏5个州(市)和曲靖市南部植被指数上升不明显,显著下降的区域主要是滇中地区;普洱市出现大面积连片上升区。植被指数上升的主要生态类型是农田、森林和草地生态系统,下降的是聚落、水体和湿地生态系统;从土地利用类型看,植被指数上升面积比例较高的是旱地、有林地、灌木林、疏林地和高覆盖度草地,下降面积比例较高的是城镇用地和其他建设用地。分析结果可为云南省生态保护提供科学依据。     

盘锦芦苇湿地水热通量计算方法的比较研究

利用2005年7月盘锦芦苇湿地生长旺季的小气候梯度系统30 min观测资料和开放式涡动相关系统10Hz原始观测资料,比较并分析了廓线法、波文比能量平衡法与涡动相关法计算的芦苇湿地生态系统水热通量。结果表明:廓线法与波文比能量平衡法计算的芦苇湿地生态系统水热通量与涡动相关法得到的芦苇湿地生态系统水热通量具有较好的相关性,但是涡动相关法存在能量不平衡。分析盘锦芦苇湿地生态系统水热通量的日变化发现,能量平衡各分量基本上以正午为中心,呈倒“U”型分布。用波文比法计算得到的芦苇湿地生态系统日感热通量最大值为164.25 W.m-2,日潜热通量最大值为294.18 W.m-2。降雨之后,芦苇湿地生态系统水热通量都有所增加,尤其是潜热通量增加显著,且峰值出现时间提前。     

鄱阳湖流域生态系统服务价值评估

为定量评估鄱阳湖及五河(赣江、抚河、信江、饶河、修河)流域生态系统服务价值,以及为江西省生态文明建设提供决策参考,文中收集整理了2015年流域水资源、农作物及水产品产量、污染物排放量、水土流失等数据,运用市场价格法、替代成本法等对江西省鄱阳湖及五河流域年度流域物质生产、水资源供给、水环境承载力、蓄水功能和水土保持五大功能价值进行定量评估。结果表明:鄱阳湖及五河流域2015年流域生态系统服务功能总经济价值为4.53×10~(11)元,各生态服务功能价值的比例最高的是流域物质生产,为54%,这反映了江西省是一个拥有丰富农业资源的农业大省。江西省流域生态系统服务功能价值的水资源供给、水环境承载力、蓄水、水土保持等其他功能价值方面有很大的发展空间,随着经济社会的不断发展,其服务功能价值将得到更大的体现。     

Future impacts of drivers of change on wetland ecosystem services in Colombia

Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems in the world due to their delivery of ecosystem services (ES), but they are particularly vulnerable to drivers of land-use change. However, little is known about how different wetlands respond to drivers of land-use change and how that impacts their delivery of ES. After extreme floods hit Colombia in 2010–2011, negative impacts from these storms heightened the interest of Colombian policy-makers in understanding and recognizing the importance of wetlands. Here, we present a map with 19 wetland types for Colombia and assess the ES that these wetlands deliver and how those ES are impacted by drivers of land-use change. We based our spatial analysis on the Corine Land Cover data for Colombia and combined that with spatial indices derived from knowledgeable experts using the matrix approach and participatory mapping (PGIS). The most vulnerable wetland types identified were floodplain forests, riparian wetlands, freshwater lakes and rivers. The region of Magdalena-Cauca has been identified as the most vulnerable to the impacts of land-use change, until 2025. We discuss our results in light of the current Colombian policy-debate which concerns the designation of wetlands as strategic ecosystems. This designation implies necessary restrictions or prohibition of harmful activities in wetlands, principally mining and industrial agriculture.     

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) in the face of external biophysical stressors

Economic instruments such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes are increasingly promoted to protect ecosystems (and their associated ecosystem services) that are threatened by processes of local and global change. Biophysical stressors external to a PES site, such as forest fires, pollution, sea level rise, and ocean acidification, may undermine ecosystem stability and sustained ecosystem service provision, yet their threats and impacts are difficult to account for within PES scheme design. We present a typology of external biophysical stressors, characterizing them in terms of stressor origin, spatial domain and temporal scale. We further analyse how external stressors can potentially impinge on key PES parameters, as they (1) threaten ecosystem service provision, additionality and permanence, (2) add challenges to the identification of PES providers and beneficiaries, and (3) add complexity and costs to PES mechanism design. Effective PES implementation under external stressors requires greater emphasis on the evaluation and mitigation of external stressors, and further instruments that can accommodate associated risks and uncertainties. A greater understanding of external stressors will increase our capacity to design multi-scale instruments to conserve important ecosystems in times of environmental change.     

The Gordian knot of mangrove conservation: Disentangling the role of scale,services and benefits

Mangrove forests are among the most threatened tropical ecosystems. Their role as providers of important ecosystem services such as coastal protection, carbon storage and nursery habitats for economically important species is increasingly acknowledged. But mangrove destruction continues, and we might have to face the prospect of a world deprived of the services offered by mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove transformation and destruction is often caused by mismatches in mangrove system management. These root in interests that focus on selected ecosystem services only, but also result from a problem of fit between the spatial scales at which ecosystem services are provided, and those at which their benefits are realized. We argue that a combination of the ecosystem services concept with a careful approach to the issue of scales will help to overcome these problems and improve the management of mangrove systems. Drawing on two case studies from Indonesia and Brazil, we illustrate the relevance of our findings for different ecosystem services.     

Economic and ecosystem costs and benefits of alternative land use and management scenarios in the Lake Rotorua,New Zealand,catchment

A significant challenge in resource management is addressed: the perceived trade-off between economic growth and ecosystem restoration and conservation. Traditional approaches to management regard restoration as a potential cost to economic productivity. In this study we show that by considering a broader range of economic values, including ecosystem services values, an argument can be made that restoration of lake ecosystems also leads to favourable economic outcomes when commonly disregarded values are considered. Our case study analyses the ecological outcomes of different catchment mitigation and land use scenarios in terms of water quality results in a lake, assessing changes in land use values based on opportunity costs, and ecosystem services values. We show that when considering the value of ecosystem services, intensive agricultural land use is not necessarily the most economically valuable form of land use within a lake catchment. Indeed, a shift towards alternative land uses within a catchment can lead to both ongoing economic benefits and improvements in water quality. In this context, land-use change offers an option for water quality improvement that minimises lake and land mitigation costs, while adding value to catchment land use. An argument is made supporting land use change towards indigenous forest types, which can sustain alternative sources of income such as a range of recreational values, while supporting important ecosystem functions for the region.     

Biodiversity mediates relationships between anthropogenic drivers and ecosystem services across global mountain,island and delta systems

Global change increasingly threatens nature, endangering the ecosystem services human wellbeing depends upon. Biodiversity potentially mediates these impacts by providing resilience to ecosystems. While biodiversity has been linked to resilience and ecosystem service supply on smaller scales, we lack understanding of whether mediating interactions between biodiversity and anthropogenic drivers are global and ubiquitous, and how they might differ between systems. Here, we examine the potential for biodiversity to mediate anthropogenic driver-ecosystem service relationships using global datasets across three distinct systems: mountains, islands and deltas. We found that driver-ecosystem service relationships were stronger where biodiversity was more intact, and weaker at higher species richness, reflecting the negative correlation between intactness and richness. Mediation was most common in mountains, then islands, then deltas; reducing with anthropogenic impact. Such patterns were found across provisioning and regulating ecosystem services, and occurred most commonly with climate change and built infrastructure. Further, we investigated the contribution of biodiversity and abiotic and anthropogenic drivers to ecosystem services. Ecosystem service supply was associated with abiotic and anthropogenic drivers alongside biodiversity, but all drivers were important to different ecosystem services. Our results empirically show the importance of accounting for the different roles that biodiversity plays in mediating human relationships with nature, and reinforce the importance of maintaining intact biodiversity in ecosystem functioning.     

Estimating the value of carbon sequestration ecosystem services in the Mediterranean Sea: An ecological economics approach

Ocean and marine ecosystems provide a range of valuable services to humans, including benefits such as carbon sequestration, whose economic value are as yet poorly understood. This paper presents a novel contribution to the valuation of carbon sequestration services in marine ecosystems with an application to the Mediterranean Sea. We combine a state-of-the-art biogeochemical model with various estimates of the social cost of carbon emissions to provide a spatially explicit characterization of the current flow of values that are attributable to the various sequestration processes, including the biological component. Using conservative estimates of the social cost of carbon, we evaluate the carbon sequestration value flows over the entire basin to range between 127 and 1722 million €/year. Values per unit area range from −135 to 1000 €/km² year, with the exclusive economic zone of some countries acting as net carbon sources. Whereas the contribution of physical processes can be either positive or negative, also depending on the properties of incoming Atlantic water, the contribution of biological processes to the marine “blue carbon” sequestration is always positive, and found to range between 100 to 1500 million €/year for the whole basin.     

The challenge of valuing ecosystem services that have no material benefits

Since the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem service science has made much progress in framing core concepts and approaches, but there is still debate around the notion of cultural services, and a growing consensus that ecosystem use and ecosystem service use should be clearly differentiated. Part of the debate resides in the fact that the most significant sources of conflict around natural resource management arise from the multiple managements (uses) of ecosystems, rather than from the multiple uses of ecosystem services.If the ecosystem approach or the ecosystem service paradigm are to be implemented at national levels, there is an urgent need to disentangle what are often semantic issues, revise the notion of cultural services, and more broadly, practically define the less tangible ecosystem services on which we depend. This is a critical step to identifying suitable ways to manage trade-offs and promote adaptive management.Here we briefly review the problems associated with defining and quantifying cultural ecosystem services and suggest there could be merit in discarding this term for the simpler non-material ecosystem services. We also discuss the challenges in valuing the invaluable, and suggest that if we are to keep ecosystem service definition focused on the beneficiary, we need to further classify these challenging services, for example by differentiating services to individuals from services to communities. Also, we suggest that focussing on ecosystem service change rather than simply service delivery, and identifying common boundaries relevant for both people and ecosystems, would help meet some of these challenges.     

Historical and future quantification of terrestrial carbon sequestration from a Greenhouse-Gas-Value perspective

Terrestrial ecosystems provide a range of important services to humans, including global and regional climate regulation. These services arise from natural ecosystem functioning as governed by drivers such as climate, atmospheric carbon dioxide mixing ratio, and land-use change. From the perspective of carbon sequestration, numerous studies have assessed trends and projections of the past and future terrestrial carbon cycle, but links to the ecosystem service concept have been hindered by the lack of appropriate quantitative service metrics. The recently introduced concept of the Greenhouse Gas Value (GHGV) accounts for the land-atmosphere exchanges of multiple greenhouse gases by taking into consideration the associated ecosystem pool sizes, annual exchange fluxes and probable effects of natural disturbance in a time-sensitive manner.We use here GHGV as an indicator for the carbon sequestration aspects of the climate regulation ecosystem service, and quantify it at global scale using the LPJ-GUESS dynamic global vegetation model. The response of ecosystem dynamics and ecosystem state variables to trends in climate, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and land use simulated by LPJ-GUESS are used to calculate the contribution of carbon dioxide to GHGV. We evaluate global variations in GHGV over historical periods and for future scenarios (1850–2100) on a biome basis following a high and a low emission scenario.GHGV is found to vary substantially depending on the biogeochemical processes represented in LPJ-GUESS (e.g. carbon–nitrogen coupling, representation of land use). The consideration of disturbance events that occur as part of an ecosystem's natural dynamics is crucial for realistic GHGV assessments; their omission results in unrealistically high GHGV. By considering the biome-specific response to current climate and land use, and their projections for the future, we highlight the importance of all forest biomes for maintaining and increasing biogeochemical carbon sequestration. Under future climate and carbon dioxide levels following a high emission scenario GHGV values are projected to increase, especially so in tropical forests, but land-use change (e.g. deforestation) opposes this trend. The GHGV of ecosystems, especially when assessed over large areas, is an appropriate metric to assess the contribution of different greenhouse gases to climate and forms a basis for the monetary valuation of the climate regulation service ecosystems provide.     

A place-based approach to payments for ecosystem services

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes are proliferating but are challenged by insufficient attention to spatial and temporal inter-dependencies, interactions between different ecosystems and their services, and the need for multi-level governance. To address these challenges, this paper develops a place-based approach to the development and implementation of PES schemes that incorporates multi-level governance, bundling or layering of services across multiple scales, and shared values for ecosystem services. The approach is evaluated and illustrated using case study research to develop an explicitly place-based PES scheme, the Peatland Code, owned and managed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s UK Peatland Programme and designed to pay for restoration of peatland habitats. Buyers preferred bundled schemes with premium pricing of a primary service, contrasting with sellers’ preferences for quantifying and marketing services separately in a layered scheme. There was limited awareness among key business sectors of dependencies on ecosystem services, or the risks and opportunities arising from their management. Companies with financial links to peatlands or a strong environmental sustainability focus were interested in the scheme, particularly in relation to climate regulation, water quality, biodiversity and flood risk mitigation benefits. Visitors were most interested in donating to projects that benefited wildlife and were willing to donate around £2 on-site during a visit. Sellers agreed a deliberated fair price per tonne of CO₂ equivalent from £11.18 to £15.65 across four sites in Scotland, with this range primarily driven by spatial variation in habitat degradation. In the Peak District, perceived declines in sheep and grouse productivity arising from ditch blocking led to substantially higher prices, but in other regions ditch blocking was viewed more positively. The Peatland Code was developed in close collaboration with stakeholders at catchment, landscape and national scales, enabling multi-level governance of the management and delivery of ecosystem services across these scales. Place-based PES schemes can mitigate negative trade-offs between ecosystem services, more effectively include cultural ecosystem services and engage with and empower diverse stakeholders in scheme design and governance.     

Cost-benefit analysis in the context of ecosystem services for human well-being: A multidisciplinary critique

This paper provides a critique of the cost-benefit analysis tool for ecosystem services policy evaluation. We argue that when applied to public ecosystem services, the theoretical assumptions that underlie economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis fail to fully acknowledge the multiple dimensions of human well-being, the plural forms of value articulation, the complex nature of ecosystems, the distributional biases of markets and the fairness implications of spatio-temporal framing. The current monistic utilitarian approach to ecosystem services policy evaluation should therefore be replaced by a pluralist framework composed of a heterogeneous set of value-articulating instruments that are appropriate to the specific context within which decision-making takes place. It is argued that within this pluralist framework cost-benefit analysis may remain an appropriate tool to examine the contingent trade-offs of local policies that have limited impacts on ecosystems and their services.