Determination of the cleat angle distribution of the RECOPOL coal seams, using CT-scans and image analysis on drilling cuttings and coal blocks

Cleat orientation, cleat frequency and cleat angle distribution of deep coal seams are only available by the use of drilling cores and from coal mine samples. Coal drilling cuttings are a cheap and fast alternative to measure cleat angle distributions with the use of image analysis techniques. In this study oriented coal samples and drilling cuttings of the RECOPOL field experiment are compared and used to explain and validate the proposed method. In other words, cleat angle distributions from drilling cuttings are measured by image analysis. The geological framework of the polish coals is described. The image analysis methodologies for the measurement of fracture faces of cuttings and from CT-scan images, derived from these coals, are explained. The results of the methods on the cuttings are compared with cleat orientation distributions from CT-scans and artificial fragments from coal blocks of the same seams. These evaluations show high agreements between the methods. The cleat angle distributions of drilling cuttings of four seams are compared with the cleat orientation distributions of a regional structural geological study. The high correlation in this study shows that cleat angle distributions of coal seams can be used as input parameters for reservoir modelling.     

Anisotropy of gas permeability associated with cleat pattern in a coal seam of the Kushiro coalfield in Japan

An underground investigation has been performed in a subbituminous coal seam exhibiting a particular cleat pattern in the Kushiro coalfield, Japan. The coal cleat pattern shows some analogy to isolated straight joints, and is believed to have been formed during the late Tertiary period by a compressive tectonic stress, roughly in the east–west direction. Three cylindrical coal specimens representing the three orthogonal axes of the coal seam with respect to the bedding plane and its associated cleat were cored from a large block of coal. Gas permeabilities of the three coal specimens were measured under the same hydrostatic pressure conditions. Results clearly revealed anisotropy in permeability of the coal seam under relatively low confining pressures of less than about 12 MPa. The specimen cored parallel to both the bedding plane and cleat strike showed the highest permeability, even though the cleats were partly filled with calcite and clay minerals. The permeability in this direction was 2.5 times higher than perpendicular to the bedding plane, and 3 times higher than in the direction parallel to the bedding plane but perpendicular to the cleat strike. This suggests that the cleats play a greater role than bedding planes in controlling fluid flow in the coal seam. The permeability in the three orientations, however, converged to the same value at confining pressures above about 16 MPa. This may suggest that both cleats and bedding planes in a coal seam can close due to earth pressure if the coal seam is located below a certain depth. It further indicates that the traditional view that gas permeability is always greater parallel to the coal bedding than perpendicular to it should be reconsidered.     

河北省煤层气资源及其勘探开发建议

河北省煤层气资源分布总体呈现南高北低、东高西低的趋势,煤层气集中在邯峰矿区-开平煤田的NE向带状区域。通过对省内4个重点区及5个一般地区煤层资源评价,底板标高-2000m以浅的煤层气资源总量为6046．32亿m^3,可采资源量为2523亿m^3,主要分布在底板标高为-1500m～-2000m的煤层中。根据煤层气资源和煤储层物性特征,认为峰峰矿区是河北省煤层气勘查开发的有利地区。在大淑村、小屯矿等无烟煤、贫煤发育区,可实施短半径水平分支井;在煤层气富集、渗透率适当的中煤级煤地区,可以实施垂直井或井组;在高瓦斯的煤矿开拓区,可以采用三维立体的煤层气（瓦斯）抽采模式。     

倾斜煤层水力压裂起裂压力计算模型及判断准则

针对目前倾斜煤层起裂机制不明确,导致水力压裂时盲目升高压力或增大注水量来增加煤层透气性的问题,根据最大拉应力理论,分析真实环境下倾斜煤层压裂钻孔周围应力状态,建立压裂钻孔周围煤岩体起裂压力计算模型及判断准则,并在重庆松藻煤电公司同华煤矿进行了验证,结果表明,根据实测压裂区域地应力状态,起裂压力随煤层倾角增大而增大,钻孔起裂位置随煤层倾角增大逐渐向走向方向偏转;现场试验起裂压力与理论计算相符,随煤层倾角增大而增大,从而验证了计算模型的正确性。     

陕西黄陇煤田侏罗系煤层气开发关键技术

黄陵煤田侏罗纪煤层裂隙发育,渗透率高,煤层气开发的地质条件优越,即将成为我国煤层气开发一个重要的潜在接替领域,根据焦坪矿区和彬长矿区煤层气开发取得的成果,详细探讨了煤层气开发方式、井位部署、钻完井工艺、压裂工艺和排采工艺等关键技术,指出欠平衡钻进、基于储层保护的洞穴完井和分层控压联合排采将是该区煤层气开发技术发展的方向。     

六盘水煤田土城向斜煤储层现今地应力分布特征及其效应

近期勘探实践显示,六盘水煤田土城向斜内煤层气资源丰富,如何实现高效开发是关键,而现今地应力在煤层气开发过程中具有重要作用。本次研究基于研究区注入/压降地应力实测数据,分析土城向斜煤储层现今地应力分布特征及其效应,结果表明:煤储层现今地应力随埋藏深度的增加而逐渐增大,呈明显的线性关系。水平最大主应力和最小主应力均随着煤储层压力的增大而增大,表明现今地应力对于煤储层能量有所贡献,影响独立叠置含煤层气系统的形成。现今地应力影响煤层渗透性,进而控制煤层气开发。土城向斜内煤储层渗透率随有效地应力增大呈指数减小。本次研究成果期望可以在六盘水煤田土城向斜煤层气开发中提供新的地质参考与科学依据。     

Geological controls on rock mass classification of coal from Huntly East Mine, New Zealand

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) measurements from 65 sites within Huntly East underground coal mine are presented. All measurements are in coal, for which the dominant discontinuities are vertical cleat. Basic RMR values using two discontinuity spacings are presented: overall RMR based on the average spacing of all individual discontinuities; and cleat zone RMR based on the average spacing between zones of cleat. Cleat orientations are highly variable, but on average approximately parallel horizontal stress axes (face cleat follows maximum horizontal stress axis, butt cleat follows minimum horizontal stress axis).Contours of RMR variations throughout the mine are used to compare rock mass conditions with geological structure. It is apparent that: (1) RMR is least within downthrown fault blocks, and particularly immediately on the downthrown sides of faults, and greatest in upthrown fault blocks; and (2) RMR contours parallel horizontal stress axes within fault-bounded blocks, and bend to parallel faults at block boundaries. From similar contours for parameters contributing to RMR, the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), groundwater rating, and discontinuity condition rating create most of the observed variations in RMR. RQD is determined from the measured discontinuity frequency and hence is a measure of the degree of fracturing of the rock mass. This is interpreted as influencing the groundwater and condition parameters directly by allowing greater water ingress. Discontinuity frequency is greatest (least spacing) in the immediate vicinity of faults, and in downthrown fault blocks, generating low RMR values. Within fault blocks RQD varies little, so RMR contours align with cleat orientations.As RMR contours, faults, stress field and cleat orientation are clearly interrelated, there is unequivocally a connection between RMR and structural geology; this allows some predictive capacity in terms of ground conditions. If geological features can be accurately defined through either drilling programs or seismic surveys, then ground conditions may be predicted before panels are driven.     

Geochemistry of coals from the Elk Valley coalfield, British Columbia, Canada

The Elk Valley coalfield of British Columbia is one of the major coal producing areas in Canada. The coals are of Cretaceous and Jurassic–Cretaceous age and range in rank from high-volatile to low-volatile bituminous (%Ro_max: 0.8–1.6). Coal seams from outcrops and active mines in this coalfield were analysed for rank and maceral composition using reflected light microscopy, for geochemistry using AAS, INAA, and ICPES, and also by proximate and ultimate analyses. The Elk Valley coal seams contain low average concentrations of hazardous elements such as As, Mo, Pb, and Se. However, there are seams that contain relatively high concentrations of some of these elements, such as 8 mg/kg and 108 mg/kg of arsenic. When the geochemistry of coal seams is compared within the different parts of the coalfield, the elemental composition amongst the seams from various sections located in the central area of the coalfield is similar. Coal seams in the northern area of the coalfield have different geochemistry than coal seams in other areas of the coalfield; seams in the northern area have much higher As, Br, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, and Na content, but contain less Ca.     

黄陇煤田煤层气储层特征

基于煤层气解吸和煤层试井等大量的实测数据,对黄陇煤田煤层的气含量、渗透率、储层压力和最小主应力等储层参数进行了研究。结果表明:黄陇煤田煤层气含量、渗透率较高;地应力较低;气含量、储层压力、最小主应力与煤层埋深呈正相关性;渗透率与最小主应力呈负相关性;渗透率与煤层埋深的关系不明显;最小主应力对储层压力影响明显。综合分析认为,煤层气含量和渗透率较高的彬长、焦坪矿区是煤层气开采最具有价值的区块。      

内蒙古自治区大青山煤田煤层气资源概况

内蒙古大青山煤田包括拴马桩煤系和石拐煤系,其中石拐煤系五当沟组的G、J、L煤层是大青山煤田主要可采煤层,煤岩组分中镜质组占绝对优势,具有较强的生烃能力。依据有关矿区瓦斯涌出量连续观测显示,该区瓦斯涌出量大,并随开采深度增加而加大。在构造上本区位于大青山复背斜南翼,压扭性构造发育,对煤层气起到较好的圈闭作用,在五当沟组中分布的致密油页岩在纵向上阻止了煤层气的逸散。根据大青山煤田各种地质因素分析．认为大青山煤田蕴藏着丰富的煤层气资源,煤田的北部、中部可作为重点开发区。     

川南煤田古叙矿区煤层气勘探选层的探讨

川南煤田煤炭资源占四川省煤炭资源的60％以上,评价的煤层气资源最占80％以上。通过煤炭资源勘查、煤层气参数外资料分析,认为将龙潭组全段作为一个目的层段研究,将有助于全方位客观评价四川省煤层气的勘探开发前景。根据煤层间距小、储层参数差异小、含气量高等条件提出了以C12-C14、C15-C21、C23-24C、C25煤层群（组）作为目的煤层的观点,并提出必须加大施工排量、多打铺垫液、提高加砂浓度的压裂改造等建议,以期对南方小盆地多煤层的煤层气开发提供新的思路。     

新疆库拜煤田铁列克矿区地应力分布及其对煤层气开发的影响

地应力、煤储层渗透率和煤储层压力等是影响煤层气开发的重要因素。通过分析新疆库拜煤田铁列克矿区注入/压降试井及原地应力测试数据,结合铁列克矿区煤层气井日产气量分析,研究了新疆库拜煤田铁列克矿区地应力变化规律及其对煤层气开发的影响,分析了铁西矿区和铁东矿区煤储层地应力特征及其对煤储层物性的影响。结果表明:(1)地应力状态在垂向上发生变化,埋深处于550~650 m、650~850 m和850~1 200 m时,地应力状态类型依次为σ_H>σ_v>σ_h、σ_H≈σ_v>σ_h和σ_v>σ_H>σ_h;(2)埋深850 m处既是垂直主应力和最大水平主应力的转换点也是渗透率趋势变化点,指示了地应力对渗透率的控制作用;(3)渗透率和煤储层压力与地应力分别呈负相关和正相关关系;(4)地应力对产能的负效应大于地应力对产能的正效应,使典型日产气量随着地应力的增大而减小;(5)铁西矿区和铁东矿区中部煤储层碎粒煤较发育、吸附孔体积和含气量均较大,是煤层气开发的有利区带。研究成果可为库拜煤田下一步煤层气开发提供理论指导。     

Inducing fractures and increasing cleat apertures in a bituminous coal under isotropic stress via application of microwave energy

For the degassing of coal seams, either prior to mining or in un-minable seams to obtain coalbed methane, it is the combination of cleat frequency, aperture, connectivity, stress, and mineral occlusions that control permeability. Unfortunately, many potential coalbeds have limited permeability and are thus marginal for economic methane extraction. Enhanced coalbed methane production, with concurrent CO₂ sequestration is also challenging due to limited CO₂ injectivity. Microwave energy can, in the absence of confining stress, induce fractures in coal. Here, creation of new fractures and increasing existing cleat apertures via short burst, high-energy microwave energy was evaluated for an isotropically stressed and an unstressed bituminous coal core. A microwave-transparent argon gas pressurized (1000 psi) polycarbonate vessel was constructed to apply isotropic stress simulating ~ 1800 foot depth. Cleat frequency and distribution was determined for the two cores via micro-focused X-ray computed tomography. Evaluation occurred before and after microwave exposure with and without the application of isotropic stress during exposure. Optical microscopy was performed for tomography cleat aperture calibration and also to examine lithotypes influences on fracture: initiation, propagation, frequency, and orientation. It was confirmed that new fractures are induced via high-energy microwave exposure in an unconfined bituminous core and that the aperture increased in existing cleats. Cleat/fracture volume, following microwave exposure increased from 1.8% to 16.1% of the unconfined core volume. For the first time, similar observations of fracture generation and aperture enhancement in coal were also determined for microwave exposure under isotropic stress conditions. An existing cleat aperture, determined from calibrated X-ray computed tomography increased from 0.17 mm to 0.32 mm. The cleat/fracture volume increased from 0.5% to 5.5%. Optical microscopy indicated that fracture initiated likely occurred in at least some cases at fusain microlithotypes. Presumably this was due to the open pore volumes and potential for bulk water presence or steam pressure buildup in these locations. For the major induced fractures, they were mostly horizontal (parallel to the bedding plane) and often contained within lithotype bands. Thus it appears likely that microwaves have the potential to enhance the communication between horizontal wellbore and existing cleat network, in coal seams at depth, for improved gas recovery or CO₂ injection.     

Application of X-ray computed tomography for analyzing cleat spacing and cleat aperture in coal samples

New techniques to determine distributions of cleat aperture, cleat orientation and cleat spacing from CT scans have been developed. For cleat orientation and spacing distributions, two different coal blocks were scanned. The CT scans have been analyzed for the three orthogonal directions. Histograms of the cleat orientations are bimodal, expressing the typical cleat texture of face and butt cleats and bedding perpendicular relaxation fractures. Deviations up to 20° from the peak values in the cleat orientation distributions were used as input for automated image analysis of cleat spacing. Distributions of the cleat spacing measurements are related to the face and butt cleat directions. The term “relevant cleat length” is introduced as a measure to extract the amount of cleat length involved with the cleat spacing measurements. The ratio ranges from 0.03 to 0.38 and expresses the difference in cleat texture in both samples. Cleat spacing versus relevant cleat length shows sample specific patterns for face cleat, butt cleat and bedding. To describe cleat aperture quantitatively, peak height and missing attenuation have been used. The image of a cleat was seen as a convolution of a rectangular fracture profile with a Gaussian point spread function.     

Electrical Resistivity Imaging technique to delineate coal seam barrier thickness and demarcate water filled voids

Exploration and exploitation of coal seams is one of the major resources for the energy sector in any country but at the same time water filled voids/water logged areas in the old workings of these seams are very critical problems for the coal mining industry. In such situations, disasters like inundation, landslides, collapsing of the old seams may occur. In this regard, it is necessary to find out the water saturated/water filled voids and zones in the mining areas. Since no established technique is available to find such zones, an experimental study using Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) has been carried out in one of the coal mining areas near Dhanbad, to find out the feasibility of finding the barrier thickness and the water logged area in underground coal mines. The area under study forms part of Jharia coalfield in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand state. The coal bearing rocks of Barakar Formation of Lower Permian age (Gondwana period) occur in the area under a thin cover (10 m to15 m) of soil and or alluvium. Coal bearing Barakar Formations consist mainly of sandstone of varying grain size, intercalation of shale and sandstone, grey and carbonaceous-shale and coal seams. Since the water saturation reduces the resistivity of a formation to a large extent, water filled voids and old coal workings are expected to have significant resistivity contrast with the surrounding host rock. Hence, ERI technique was applied in such an environment as this technique uses high-density data acquisition both laterally and vertically by using multiple number of electrodes. Along with ERI, mise-à-la-masse (also called charged body) technique was also employed at one of the promising sites to find out the connectivity of water logged areas and also detection of these old workings from the surface measurements was analyzed. The interpreted 2D resistivity sections have clearly indicated the water bearing zone(s) along the profile which was well confirmed with the existing water level in the nearby borewells. On the other hand, this technique did not identify the size of the coal pillar and gallery (air filled voids), which might be due to the small size of the voids (i.e. about 2 m × 2 m) below a depth of 15m and more but have indicated altogether as a high resistive zone ranging from 600–1000 Ohm-m.     

韩城矿区煤层结构特征及其对微粒生成的影响

煤层气开发利用具有“资源、安全、环保”多重经济效益和社会效益。韩城矿区是我国煤层气勘探开发试验先导区之一,区内煤层气井中煤粉等固相微粒产出现象较为突出。为了查明韩城矿区煤层结构特征及其对微粒生成的影响作用,分析了煤层气开发主力煤层的煤层结构复杂程度,讨论了3、5和11号煤层中夹矸发育规律,表征了物理模拟实验条件下煤中夹矸与微粒生成的关系。结果表明:按主力煤层由早至晚发育顺序,其煤层结构由复杂趋于简单、夹矸发育层数减小、夹矸总厚降低。3号煤层中夹矸主要发育在桑树坪、下峪口及王峰井田。5号煤层中夹矸发育在矿区南部,夹矸总厚高值区集中在象山、薛峰和龙亭一带。11号煤层中夹矸分布遍及全区,具东部边缘发育程度高、西部发育程度低的特征。在物理破坏、水岩反应和层间压差作用下,煤中夹矸会成为微粒生成层位。泥质夹矸对微粒的生成数量、运移距离及相应的储层渗透性伤害影响尤甚。加强煤层结构特征分析有助于查明煤中夹矸岩性变化及分布特征,进而为有效防治微粒生成提供保障。     

青海省天峻县木里煤田煤层气有利区块的 多层次模糊数学评判

对影响煤层气勘探开发潜力的各种因素进行了综合研究,确定了煤层气勘探开发潜力评价的3个二级指标(生气潜力、储层物性和封盖性能)及对应的三级指标。采用模糊数学方法对各级因素指标赋予权重,建立了用于煤层气勘探开发潜力评价的多层次模糊数学评判模型。利用该模型,对青海木里煤田中低煤阶煤层气资源勘探开发潜力进行了评价,认为江仓矿区是木里煤层气勘探开发的最佳试验区。所建立的评价体系可以作为中低煤阶煤层气资源开发潜力评价的参考体系。     

彬长矿区煤层气储层参数及开发潜力

彬长矿区煤的变质程度低,矿井瓦斯涌出量大,瓦斯治理形势日趋严峻。根据矿区地质勘查、井下及煤层气井所获得的地质资料显示,煤层气开发的主要目标4煤层厚度大,分布稳定,煤体结构好,渗透率和气含量相对较高,气含量最高可达6.29m3/t,估算煤层气资源量为132.743×108m3。依据煤层气资源丰度划分,矿区煤层气富集区总面积为87.41km2,资源量为40.06×108m3,主要分布在大佛寺井田,相对富集区主要位于胡家河井田中南部和孟村井田东部,贫气区主要位于孟村井田西部、文家坡井田。综合分析认为研究区煤层气开发地质条件相对较好,属于可以抽采煤层,大佛寺井田为地面煤层气勘探开发最具潜力的地区。     

焦作煤田恩村井田煤层气赋存特征与开发利用前景

根据煤田地质勘查和煤层气参数井资料,对焦作煤田恩村井田煤层气赋存的地质条件和煤层气储层特征进行了分析,认为井田内煤层气含量与煤层厚度、煤层埋深、煤层割理发育程度、围岩气密性呈正相关,且明显受构造控制。以F5断层为界将井田分为北块段和南墙向斜主体块段两个富集区。初步预测井田内二1煤层气总资源量160亿m3,有较大开发潜力,由于该区煤层渗透率、储层温度较低,煤破裂压力与闭合压力差值小,不利于通过压裂产生有效延伸长度和导流能力的裂缝,建议设计施工水平井或多分支水平井,以增加煤层气产能。     

Structural controls on fractured coal reservoirs in the southern Appalachian Black Warrior foreland basin

Coal is a nearly impermeable rock type for which the production of fluids requires the presence of open fractures. Basin-wide controls on the fractured coal reservoirs of the Black Warrior foreland basin are demonstrated by the variability of maximum production rates from coalbed methane wells. Reservoir behavior depends on distance from the thrust front. Far from the thrust front, normal faults are barriers to fluid migration and compartmentalize the reservoirs. Close to the thrust front, rates are enhanced along some normal faults, and a new trend is developed. The two trends have the geometry of conjugate strike-slip faults with the same σ₁ direction as the Appalachian fold-thrust belt and are inferred to be the result of late pure-shear deformation of the foreland. Face cleat causes significant permeability anisotropy in some shallow coal seams but does not produce a map-scale production trend.