鄂东南地区大型矽卡岩型铁矿床金云母40Ar-39Ar同位素年龄及其构造背景初探

鄂东南地区铜铁多金属矿床是长江中下游地区金属成矿带的重要组成部分,但其精确的成矿时代和构造背景的研究显得较少.本文选择与磁铁矿密切共生的金云母为研究对象,利用40Ar-39Ar阶段加热同位素定年方法对该地区典型大型程潮和金山店矽卡岩铁矿床中金云母进行了成矿时代的研究,获得了金云母的40Ar-39Ar同位素坪年龄分别为132.6±1.4Ma和131.6±1.2Ma,对应等时线年龄为136±4Ma和132.0±2.8Ma.结合矿物共生组合特征和流体包裹体温度的分析,认为金云母的40Ar-39Ar坪年龄分别代表程潮和金山店矽卡型铁矿床的成矿时代,结果与大冶矽卡岩型铁矿床和鄂东南地区斑岩-矽卡岩型铜多金属矿床的成矿时代可以对比.在整合已有的岩石学、地球化学和地球物理学资料基础上,笔者认为鄂东南大型矽卡岩型铁矿床形成于区域岩石圈伸展和减薄构造环境.     

华北地块南缘中段中生代花岗质岩石的40Ar-39Ar年代学研究

对华北地块南缘4个中生代花岗质岩体中的角闪石和黑云母进行了40Ar-39Ar定年研究。结果表明,陕西黑山村岩体黑云母花岗闪长岩中黑云母的40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为126. 6±0. 3Ma,河南马家湾岩体细粒黑云母花岗闪长岩中黑云母的40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为126. 6±0. 2Ma,河南洛宁南八百坡岩体黑云母二长花岗岩中角闪石的40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为128. 3±0. 3Ma,山西蚕坊岩体花岗闪长岩中角闪石的40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为129. 2±0. 2Ma。上述结果显示华北地块南缘中生代的岩浆活动主要发生在早白垩世。该期岩浆的产生应与中国东部早白垩世的伸展环境相联系。     

青海祁漫塔格成矿带与虎头崖铜铅锌多金属矿床有关的二长花岗岩体热年代学研究

虎头崖铜铅锌多金属矿区是青海祁漫塔格地区较为典型的兼具内接触带矽卡岩亚型和外接触带矽卡岩亚型矿化的矿区,其岩浆侵入活动强烈,不同时代含碳酸盐岩的地层出露多,铁铜锡钼铅锌等金属成矿元素组合复杂,找矿潜力巨大。本次研究依据岩体热年代学理论,即岩体总能量与其规模成正比,规模愈大的岩体其热能量愈高,热效应愈大,冷速率相应愈低。冷速率通过同一岩体不同矿物的封闭温度计算得出。选取虎头崖矿区黑云母和斜长石两种矿物进行Ar-Ar年龄测定,样品HTY002黑云母和斜长石~(40)Ar-~(39)Ar坪年龄分别为(233.6±2.2)Ma和(231.5±1.3)Ma,样品HTY016黑云母和斜长石~(40)Ar-~(39)Ar坪年龄分别为(229.6±2.3)Ma和(219.3±1.8)Ma,样品HTY019黑云母和斜长石~(40)Ar-~(39)Ar坪年龄分别为(224.7±2.6)Ma和(222.2±2.2)Ma,计算得到二长花岗岩冷速率分别为57.14℃/Ma、11.65℃/Ma、48.00℃/Ma。当侵入岩体的成分相近时,其侵位时的单位热能可能差别很小,而岩体的总能量与其规模是成正比的,所以不同规模岩体的总能量是有差别的,规模愈大的岩体其热能量也愈高,与围岩达到平衡所需的时间愈长,热效应愈大,冷速率相应愈低。针对不同样品和不同矿物计算虎头崖矿区二长花岗岩体冷速率比较接近,其冷速率相对较快(介于11~57℃/Ma),可知其热效应较大,具有一定的成矿潜力。     

鄂东南铜绿山矿田矽卡岩型铜铁金矿床的辉钼矿Re-Os同位素年龄及其地质意义

鄂东南地区(斑岩-)矽卡岩型铜铁金多金属矿床是长江中下游地区金属成矿带的重要组成部分,铜绿山矿田以成矿类型齐全和矿体规模较大为特点,是鄂东南矿集区最重要的矿田.但目前对不同成矿元素的矽卡岩型铜铁金矿床的成矿时代、成岩成矿时差和构造背景的研究相对较少.本文利用Re-Os同位素定年方法对铜绿山矿田两个典型的大型铜绿山矽卡岩铜(铁金)矿床和大型鸡冠嘴矽卡岩(铜)金矿床进行了成矿时代的研究,获得了辉钼矿的Re-Os同位素年龄范围分别为(1368±19)～(1381±18) Ma和(1371±19)～(1388±19) Ma,等时线年龄分别为(1371±19) Ma和(1382±22) Ma,表明铜绿山矿田不同类型的矿床几乎同时形成;与矿田花岗闪长岩锆石SHRIMP U-Pb年龄[(1403±18) Ma]在误差范围内基本一致,存在较短的成岩成矿时差,该成矿时代与鄂东南地区其他矿田的(斑岩-)矽卡岩型铜钼矿床和矽卡岩型铁矿床,以及长江中下游地区铜陵、安庆、九瑞矿集区(斑岩-)矽卡岩铜多金属矿床的形成时代基本一致.铜绿山矿田矽卡岩铜铁金矿床可能是在太平洋板块俯冲的撕裂或开天窗时,由于玄武质岩浆底侵和岩石圈减薄导致中国东部大规模侵入岩和成矿作用产物的形成.     

青海它温查汉铁多金属矿床40Ar-39Ar年代学 研究及意义

它温查汉铁多金属矿床是新近发现于柴达木盆地和祁漫塔格山结合部位靠近盆地覆盖区一侧、风成沙覆盖严重、成矿元素组合复杂的矽卡岩型多金属矿床.文章主要探讨了其地质特征和成矿年代学,利用云母Ar-Ar法同位素定年技术,获得该矿床钻孔岩芯矽卡岩磁铁矿矿石中白云母40Ar-39Ar坪年龄和等时线年龄分别为(230.7±2.0) Ma和(229.9±3.5) Ma(MSWD=1.8),等时线年龄与坪年龄在误差范围内完全一致,厘定了该矿床成矿年龄为中三叠世晚期.结合区域多金属矿床最新成岩成矿年代学数据,认为该矿床形成于碰撞向后碰撞转换的地质构造环境,构成本区十分重要的与印支期碰撞造山有关的铁铜铅锌金多金属矿床成矿系列.     

山东莱芜张家洼铁矿床金云母40Ar/39Ar定年及其对成矿构造背景的启示

华北地区是我国最大的矽卡岩型富铁矿床集中区，但目前对区域铁矿床的成矿年代学研究尚不系统和全面，从而制约了对其成矿构造背景的理解。山东莱芜张家洼矽卡岩型铁矿床是华北克拉通东部最重要平炉富铁矿产地之一，铁矿体主要赋存于早白垩世矿山岩体与中奥陶统碳酸盐岩的接触带、石炭系本溪组与奥陶系间不整合面的层间构造破碎带。金云母是张家洼铁矿床最主要的含水矽卡岩矿物，且与磁铁矿密切共生，对其进行40Ar/39Ar定年可为张家洼铁矿床的成矿时代提供约束。本文对张家洼铁矿床I号矿区和港里矿区的两件金云母单矿物样品进行了激光阶段加热40Ar/39Ar同位素分析，获得很好的坪年龄，分别为129. 7±0. 8 Ma和131. 5±1. 2 Ma (2σ)。上述年龄数据与矿山岩体的锆石和矽卡岩中热液榍石的U- Pb年龄一致，证实张家洼铁矿床的成矿时代为130 Ma左右。对张家洼及华北克拉通其他矽卡岩型铁矿床现有同位素年龄数据的综合分析表明，整个华北克拉通内的矽卡岩型铁矿成矿作用具有同时性和爆发性，绝多大数矿床均形成于130 Ma左右，指示华北地区大规模矽卡岩型铁成矿作用是对华北克拉通岩石圈减薄和破坏的响应。     

豫西银家沟硫铁多金属矿床Re-Os和40Ar-39Ar年龄及其地质意义

河南省银家沟硫铁多金属矿床位于华北克拉通南缘的华熊地块内,是东秦岭地区最大的硫铁多金属矿床,以其硫铁矿储量大及共、伴生元素复杂区别于东秦岭其他以钼为主的矿床.矿化在空间上呈规律性的带状分布,从岩体内向外,依次出现斑岩型钼矿体→斑岩型硫铁矿体→矽卡岩型铁矿体、钼矿体→矽卡岩型硫铁、铜、锌、金矿体→脉型铅、锌、银矿体.选取5件接触带矽卡岩型钼矿体中的辉钼矿样品进行Re-Os同位素定年,获得(142.9±2.1) Ma～(143.7±2.3) Ma的模式年龄,加权平均值为(143.4±0.9) Ma(MSWD=0.071),等时线年龄为(140.0±18.0) Ma(2σ,MSWD=0.095),将(143.4±0.9) Ma认作辉钼矿的结晶年龄,表明银家沟矿床矽卡岩型矿体形成于约143 Ma前;选取1件硅化、绢云母化、黄铁矿化、辉钼矿化钾长花岗斑岩中的绢云母样品定年,获得40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为(143.6±1.4) Ma,相应的39 Ar/36 Ar-40 Ar/39Ar等时线年龄为(143.0±2.0) Ma(MSWD=0.13),将(143.0±2.0)Ma认作绢云母的Ar封闭年龄,表明银家沟矿床斑岩型矿化亦发生在约143Ma前.本次辉钼矿Re-Os和绢云母40Ar-39A定年结果表明,银家沟矽卡岩型和斑岩型矿体均形成于早白垩世初期.银家沟矿床辉钼矿的ω(Re)在38.5×10-6～43.2×10-6之间,成矿物质主要来自由火成物质组成的宽坪群和二郎坪群,成矿与矿区内的钾长花岗斑岩有关.结合前人对东秦岭造山带中生代期间地球动力学背景的研究成果,笔者认为银家沟矿床形成于EW向构造体制向NNE向构造体制大转换阶段,即形成于挤压体制向伸展体制转换的背景.     

南岭地区早侏罗世成矿作用——来自粤北大顶铁锡矿床LA-ICP-MS和Ar-Ar年代学证据

近来南岭地区陆续见有早侏罗世成岩作用的报道,但是否存在同期成矿作用尚无定论。本文报道了大顶矿区石背岩体二长花岗岩、花岗闪长岩和大顶矽卡岩铁锡矿体的高精度同位素年龄数据,确认该地区存在早侏罗世成矿事件。石背岩体二长花岗岩和花岗闪长岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄分别为187.5±1.8 Ma(MSWD=0.81)和186.9±2.0 Ma(MSWD=1.15),大顶矽卡岩铁锡矿体中的金云母~(39)Ar-~(40)Ar坪年龄为185.9±1.2 Ma,等时线年龄为184.5±2.6 Ma(MSWD=0.83)。该矿床成矿作用是南岭地区首例有精确年龄报道的早侏罗世的成矿事件,为南岭成矿带矿产调查评价工作提供了一种新的选择。早侏罗世岩浆岩岩性组合、空间展布特点以及中侏罗世才开始的太平洋板块西向挤压过程,说明大顶矿床的成岩成矿过程更可能是受华南印支运动晚期的后造山伸展作用或者垮塌过程控制。     

宁芜盆地凹山和东山铁矿床中阳起石的激光39Ar-40Ar年代学研究

文章通过对凹山和东山铁矿床中特征的组合矿物之一伟晶状阳起石进行激光39Ar-40Ar法定年,精确测定了玢岩铁矿的成矿时代。其中东山铁矿中新鲜阳起石(黑绿色)的39Ar-40Ar等时线年龄在126～129Ma之间,与赋矿围岩大王山组火山岩中角闪石的等时线年龄(127Ma)一致,证明成矿与成岩密切相关,成矿与成岩是同时期的产物。而凹山铁矿中蚀变阳起石(灰绿色)的39Ar-40Ar等时线年龄为(114±16)Ma。2种阳起石分别形成于成矿作用的不同阶段,黑绿色新鲜阳起石与磷灰石、磁铁矿同期形成,形成于岩浆向热液演化的高温阶段,在成岩和成矿之后的冷却过程中,矿体和潜火山岩体具有相同的闪石封闭温度(500℃±);而灰绿色蚀变阳起石形成于中期阳起石(透辉石)-钠长石-磷灰石-磁铁矿化矿体围岩蚀变阶段。     

内蒙古柳坝沟金矿床40Ar-39Ar年代学及铅同立素

内蒙古柳坝沟金矿床是华北地台北缘成矿带上,以广泛发育钾长石化为特色的大型金矿床.金矿体中钾长石的40 Ar-39Ar同位素和矿石的铅同位素特征表明:40Ar-39Ar年龄密度图中260～360 Ma峰值区反映了岩浆活动的主要时限,与区内岩体侵位年龄(220～350 Ma)相符.40Ar-39Ar坪年龄为(217.9±3...     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.