地球系统科学——21世纪地球科学前沿与可持续发展战略科学基础

首先，从人类面临全球性的重大问题、地球系统的全球化、地球系统科学与传统地球科学和国内外研究现状4个方面介绍了地球系统科学提出的背景，阐述了地球系统科学的七大特征和六大趋向。其次，详细介绍了地球系统科学的概念与研究方法，主要内容有研究思路、基本概念、地球系统过程和地球系统科学的方法论。第三，构建了地球系统科学理论基础，主要内容包括：地球系统的连续动态系统、离散动态系统、地球系统的随机性、地球系统的自组织和地球系统的简单巨系统与复杂巨系统。第四，重点介绍了地球系统科学子系统与各圈层相互作用的动力学效应。最后，概述了地球系统的数字表达——数字地球和地球系统科学是可持续发展战略的科学基础。     

国际地球科学发展态势

从学科发展的角度综述了20世纪80年代以来地球科学研究在思维方式、研究对象的时空尺度、研究内容、研究形式、组织形式、信息交流、方法手段等方面所发生的深刻变化，指出地球科学已经进入地球系统科学时代和为人类社会经济可持续发展服务的时代。进入21世纪，地球科学研究的主要趋向、热点与重点问题是：①突出地球系统科学，关注全球变化与地球各圈层相互作用及其变化的研究，以及人类活动引发的重大环境变化研究；②突出地球演化的动力过程研究，关注地球内部深层过程与岩石圈动力学、气候系统动力学与气候预测、生态系统动力学与生态环境的保护和建设；③突出地球信息科学，关注数字地球、3S（GIS、DIS和GPS）一体化和地球科学定量化的研究趋势；④突出地球管理科学，关注减灾防灾、环境保护治理、资源合理开发利用以及碳循环、水资源、食物与纤维、能源战略等问题；⑤突出地球科学跨学科研究进展与创新，关注经济社会发展对地球科学的影响与需求，重视地球科学在自然科学内部与其他学科的交叉融合以及高新技术在地球科学中的应用。     

流体地球科学与地球系统科学

近年来,地球系统科学逐渐成为地球科学的新趋势,但固体地球科学尚难于融入其中。其根本原因在于地球系统科学属于系统科学或复杂科学的组成部分,而固体地球科学其本质上属于理想科学的范畴,以研究线性地球过程为主,或者以理想科学的手法研究非线性地球过程。流体地球科学不仅研究地球的流体系统,也研究流体系统与固体系统的强和弱相互作用,是固体地球科学融入地球系统科学的唯一途径。     

地球系统科学发展方向与趋势

首先从人类面临全球性的重大问题、地球系统的全球化和地球系统科学与传统地球科学三个方面介绍了地球系统科学提出的背景；在此基础上，阐述了地球系统科学国内外研究现状；然后详细介绍了地球系统科学的概念与研究方法，主要内容有研究思路、基本概念、地球系统过程、全球-区域信息获取、海量信息处理和分析及系统模型等；第三构建了地球系统科学理论基础，主要内容包括：地球系统的连续动态系统、离散动态系统、地球系统的随机性、地球系统的自组织和地球系统的简单巨系统与复杂巨系统；然后重点介绍了地球系统科学子系统与各圈层相互作用的动力学模型与效应；第四，概述了地球系统的数字表达---数字地球和地球系统科学是可持续发展战略科学基础。最后，简述了中国开展地球系统科学研究的方向和面临的主要科学问题。     

地球数据是地球科学创新的重要源泉——从地球科学谈科学数据共享

地球科学的科技活动产生地球数据，地球数据又是形成地球科学假说、模式和理论的根据。同时，当代人类活动包括经济活动、社会活动、日常生活和军事活动等，越来越多地需要地球信息数据服务。     

浅议学科交叉与地球系统科学

以整体系统的观念认识地球 ,强化学科间的交叉与渗透 ,是 2 1世纪初地球科学发展的主题。各国都十分重视推动学科交叉研究 ,并将学科交叉分为Modidisciplinary、Interdisciplinary、Transdiscipli nary三个层次。地球系统科学的两大前沿为“地球系统的联系”和“地球系统的演化” ,2 1世纪地球科学的突破在于地球系统变化理论的形成。笔者指出 :目前 ,我们的观念还跟不上地球科学的发展 ,尤其是“学科交叉”的理念不强 ,缺乏地球系统科学的思维 ,但我们有开展地球系统科学研究的有利条件     

浅谈固体地球科学与地球系统科学

地球科学在20世纪的诸多进展中,对后来科学发展具有深远影响的基本认识之一是地球演化的行为具有整体性,其不同的圈层确实通过多种途径相互作用,且人类活动已成为地球演化的重要营力之一。这些认识导致地球系统科学思想的产生和发展,并使不同圈层相互作用的过程和机理、人与环境的相互作用研究成为21世纪基础科学研究的前沿。地球系统科学强调地球不同圈层、不同单元相互作用的整体性和关联性,因而科学研究必须从"整体地球系统"的视野出发,但研究过程又必须从关键区域入手。我国是地球系统科学研究的关键地区之一,未来研究应立足地域优势和特色,攻克全球性重大科学问题,解决社会对地球科学的知识需求。     

“地球系统探测新原理与新技术”优先领域与地球系统科学

地球系统科学是研究组成地球系统的子系统之间相互联系、相互作用的机制，研究地球整体结构、特征、功能和行为，研究地球系统变化的规律和控制这些变化机理的科学。对地观测、探测与分析技术的发展是地球科学创新思维来源的技术保障，同时对地球科学基础理论研究水平的提高起着重要的作用。21世纪地球科学的发展将更加重视发展地球系统科学的理论、方法与技术体系。“地球系统观测、探测新原理与新技术”被列入国家自然科学基金委员会地球科学部“十五”优先资助领域。回顾“十五”期间的资助情况，探讨该领域和地球系统科学的关系，将有利于“十一五”对该领域资助工作的调整与完善。     

地球系统科学发展方向与趋势

首先从人类面临全球性的重大问题、地球系统的全球化和地球系统科学与传统地球科学三个方面介绍了地球系统科学提出的背景;在此基础上,阐述了地球系统科学国内外研究现状;然后详细介绍了地球系统科学的概念与研究方法,主要内容有研究思路、基本概念、地球系统过程、全球一区域信息获取、海量信息处理和分析及系统模型等;第三构建了地球系统科学理论基础,主要内容包括:地球系统的连续动态系统、离散动态系统、地球系统的随机性、地球系统的自组织和地球系统的简单巨系统与复杂巨系统;然后重点介绍了地球系统科学子系统与各圈层相互作用的动力学模型与效应;第四,概述了地球系统的数字表达——数字地球和地球系统科学是可持续发展战略科学基础。最后,简述了中国开展地球系统科学研究的方向和面临的主要科学问题。     

从地球过程到人地和谐--关于地球系统研究科学战略的思考

较为详尽分析了地球系统科学的由来与发展、我国地球系统科学研究所面临的机遇与挑战,阐明了我国开展地球系统科学研究的基本思路,从而提出8个战略重点：区域气候环境系统变化与适应;水系统、水循环与水安全;生态系统与全球碳循环;人类活动与地球表层系统;地球内部动力学与地球系统演化;地球灾变事件与生命过程;地球观测系统与地球系统模拟以及耦合过程动力学、响应动力学、适应和预测理论。     

Earth Science Education in Botswana

In Botswana, the Earth Science Education programme is based at the University of Botswana in the Department of Geology, which is one of seven departments in the Faculty of Science. Initially the new department had three academic staff members; this number has later increased to eight and, most recently, to ten academic posts. Since the programme's inception in 1980, 84 graduates completed the undergraduate geological studies. The Geology B.Sc. programme gives a choice between a single major in Geology and three combined majors: Geology/Environmental Sciences, Geology/Chemistry and Geology/Physics. Postgraduate programmes are currently under preparation. All Geology graduates are employed by the Botswana Government institutions and private companies. An active research programme, related to both local and international projects is conducted. This involves co-operation with national institutions and international organisations.     

Earth Science Education in Eritrea

In Eritrea, Earth Science Education is taught only by the Earth Sciences Department based at the College of Science, University of Asmara. Currently, the University of Asmara has eight teaching Colleges: Agriculture & Aquatic Sciences, Arts and Social Sciences, Business and Economics, Education, Engineering, Health Sciences, Law, and Science offering Bachelor degrees, Diplomas and Certificates in various fields. The Earth Sciences Department was established as a Geology Unit in 1983 and until 1996 offered minor and service geology courses for students of Science and Agriculture. The Department started a four-year degree programme in Geology (B.Sc. in Geology) at the beginning of the 1996/97 academic year. The B.Sc. programme in Geology provides students with a Geology major and a minor in Physics or Chemistry. Potential major organisations which employ the geology graduates include the Ministry of Mines and Energy, and the Ministry of Land, Water and Environment, as well as mining and petroleum companies which are currently active in mineral resources exploration in the country.     

Earth Science Education in Morocco

The earth sciences are taught in twelve universities in Morocco and in three other institutions. In addition there are three more earth science research institutions. Earth science teaching has been taking place since 1957. The degree system is a four-year degree, split into two two-year blocks and geology is taught within the geology-biology programme for the first part of the degree. ‘Classical’ geology is taught in most universities, although applied geology degrees are also on offer in some universities. Recently-formed technical universities offer a more innovative approach to Earth Science Education. Teaching is in French, although school education is in Arabic. There is a need for a reform of the curriculum, although a lead is being taken by the technical universities. A new geological mapping programme promises new geological and mining discoveries in the country and prospects of employment for geology graduates.     

Earth Science Education in Sudan

This paper describes Earth Science Education in Sudan, with particular emphasis on the University of Khartoum. The first geological department in Sudan was founded in 1958 in the University of Khartoum. In the 1980s, six more geological departments have been added in the newer universities. The types of courses offered include Diploma, B.Sc. (General), B.Sc. (Honours), M.Sc. and Ph.D. The Geology programmes are strongly supported by field work training and mapping. Final-year students follow specialised training in one of the following topics: hydrogeology, geophysics, economic geology, sedimentology and engineering geology. A graduation report, written in the final year, represents 30–40% of the total marks. The final assessment and grading are decided with the help of internal and external examiners.Entry into the Geology programmes is based on merit and performance. The number of students who graduate with Honours and become geologists is between 20% to 40% of the initial intake at the beginning of the second year. Employment opportunities are limited and are found mainly in the Government's geological offices, the universities and research centres, and private companies. The Department of Geology at the University of Khartoum has long-standing internal and external links with outside partners. This has been manifested in the training of staff members, the donation of teaching materials and laboratory facilities. The chief problems currently facing Earth Science Education in Sudan are underfunding, poor equipment, laboratory facilities and logistics. Other problems include a shortage of staff, absence of research, lack of supervision and emigration of staff members.Urgent measures are needed to assess and evaluate the status of Earth Science Education in terms of objectives, needs and difficulties encountered. Earth Science Education is expected to contribute significantly to the exploitation of mineral resources and socio-economic development in the Sudan.     

Earth Science Education in Uganda

Uganda has two Government funded universities, five operating private universities and four other universities are due to start soon. Geology was first taught in Uganda at Makerere University in 1968 within the Department of Geography. Through the leadership of Prof. Robert Macdonald it became established as a full department in August 1969 as part of the Faculty of Science. Both pure and applied geology are taught and the courses are designed to suit the current job market. At present, the three-term academic year is being replaced by a semester-based course unit system. At the same time, the 3:2:2 subject combination, requiring a student to do three subjects in first year and two subjects in both second and third years, is to be replaced by a major-minor subject combination.Currently, there are about 50 undergraduate students and four Ph.D. students in the Department. A student Geological Association acts as a forum for the exchange of information on matters of geological concern. An affirmative action policy has improved the intake of women students into the Department. On average, the number of women has increased from about 10% to 33.3% in the years 1984/85 to 1997/98. Their performance parallels that of the male students and they are readily employed. Of the eight members of academic staff, two are women. The Department of Geology has good links with regional and overseas universities through which a number of research programmes are currently supported. In addition, most of the training of manpower for the University and research programmes is supported by regional and international research agencies. Academic staff combine teaching with research and consultancy.     

Earth Science Education in Zambia

Mining in Zambia has been practised for centuries, and in the last 70 years Zambia has risen to become one of the world's leading Cu producers as a result of the exploitation of the Zambian Copperbelt orebodies. In contrast to this long history of mining, Zambia has a relatively short history of Earth Science Education. For the past 24 years, the earth sciences have been taught within the School of Mines in University of Zambia. The School started operation on 1st June, 1973, with the purpose of training professional geologists, extractive metallurgical/mineral processing engineers and mining engineers to service the needs of the mining industry in Zambia.The School consists of three departments — Geology, Metallurgy and Mineral Processing, and Mining Engineering — which deliver a five-year undergraduate programme. Students are admitted to the School after completing a one-year programme in the School of Natural Sciences of the University of Zambia. Students with an average of C+ or better in Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics are admitted into the School of Mines.The School of Mines has a total of 36 teaching positions — 12 for each Department. To successfully complete their course, students must pass 40 courses over a period of five years. During this time, industrial training is mandatory in the vacation periods after the third and fourth years of study. This training is mainly within the mining industry who in most cases sponsor the students for their studies in the School.The School admits 50 students on average per year, of whom five students take up Geology as a career. So far only two female students have studied in the School of Mines, both of them in Geology. The student to staff ratio in the Geology Department is 3 to 1. The low enrolment in Geology is thought to be because of a lack of knowledge of geology as a possible career by prospective students and a perceived lack of progression, once employed in industry. This has lead to a ‘Geoscience in Schools’ project with the main aim of making secondary school students aware of geology as a career.The Geology Department enjoys close co-operation with geology departments in a number of universities around the world, with industry, government ministries and regional bodies. It is hoped that the current increase in employment prospects for Geology graduates in Zambia will attract more students to geology as a career.     

Earth Science Education in Kenya

The University of Nairobi is currently the only University in Kenya which offers degree level courses in the earth sciences. The Department was founded in 1961, became part of an autonomous University in 1970, awarded its first degrees in 1972 and awarded its first Geology degrees in 1978. The Department currently offers a four-year B.Sc. course - delivered as part of a course unit system - and an M.Sc. programme in Geology. Students are admitted to the University after eight years of primary and four years of secondary schooling. Graduates find employment either in government departments or in the private sector. The Department currently has 15 academic staff who are involved in a variety of research projects. Currently, there are collaborative links with Universities in Germany, Sweden and South Africa.     

Earth Science Education in Tanzania

In Tanzania, the earth sciences are only taught at the University of Dar es Salaam, in the Department of Geology. The Department was founded in 1974, acquired its first Tanzanian staff in 1975 and produced its first graduates in 1977. Now the Department is completely run by Tanzanian staff and about 25 Geology students graduate annually.The Department offers B.Sc., M.Sc. (taught and by research) and Ph.D. degrees. Students enter the University after 13 years of schooling, thus, upon completion of A levels. Currently, about 30 students a year are admitted to the Geology course, of whom about five will fail to complete. Normally, only 5 to 10% of the undergraduates are women. Currently, most students obtain employment with exploration and mining companies.The Department has dedicated laboratories for teaching and research and has several items of analytical equipment. There are 15 academic staff, most with Ph.D.s, many of whom were trained in the 1980s and 1990s in Germany and Finland through collaborative training programmes. Current research projects are funded by Sweden, the Netherlands and the Tanzanian Government.     

Earth Science Education in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a mineral-rich country with a long history of Earth Science Education. The establishment of a University Geology Department in 1960 allowed the country to produce its own earth science graduates. These graduates are readily absorbed by the mining industry and few are without work. Demand for places at the University is high and entry standards reflect this. Students enter the University after GCE A levels in three science subjects and most go on to graduate. Degree programmes include B.Sc. General in Geology (plus another science), B.Sc. Honours in Geology and M.Sc. in Exploration Geology and in Geophysics. The undergraduate curriculum is broad-based and increasingly vocationally orientated. A well-equipped building caters for relatively large student numbers and also houses analytical facilities used for research and teaching. Computers are used in teaching from the first year onwards. Staff are on average poorly qualified compared to other universities, but there is an impressive research element. The Department has good links with many overseas universities and external funding agencies play a strong supporting role. That said, financial constraints remain the greatest barrier to future development, although increasing links with the mining industry may cushion this.     

Assessing quality in Earth Science Education

Quality is an elusive concept — hard to define, but you recognise it when you come across it. This paper reviews the meaning of quality as applied in Higher Education and shows that there are, of necessity, a number of workable definitions of quality in Higher Education. The assessment of quality in Earth Science Higher Education in England during 1994–1995 is described. A number of general features of quality in Earth Sciences Education are drawn from this case study and the future direction of quality assurance is mapped. Three principles drawn from the definitions of quality and from the English teaching quality assessment exercise are applied to Earth Science Education in Africa. It is argued that different definitions of quality will apply in different societal contexts in Africa and that these may be used to shape the relevance of Geoscience Education. Increasing mobility of labour means that comparability of academic standards between African countries within a region is desirable and should be worked for. Finally, research in the UK shows that teaching quality is not necessarily dependent upon the size or research potential of a department, indicating that Africa can deliver high quality Earth Science Education.