The application of an indirect electromagnetic geothermometer to temperature extrapolation in depth

We study the feasibility of the application of an indirect EM geothermometer, developed recently, to the temperature extrapolation in depth using magnetotelluric data collected in the seismically active northern Tien Shan faulted area (Bishkek Geodynamic Test Site, Kyrgyzstan) and Hengill geothermal zone (Iceland). The approach used is based on the artificial neural network technique, which does not imply the prior knowledge of the electrical conductivity mechanisms on the one hand and provides temperature estimates based on the analysis of the implicit conductivity-temperature relations, on the other.
The samples for neuronet teaching consisted in the well temperature records and electrical conductivity values determined for the same depths from the magnetotelluric data measured in the vicinities of eight boreholes in each testing area. The testing of the taught neuronets was carried out using the temperature records not involved in the teaching process. The results indicate that the temperature extrapolation accuracy essentially depends on the ratio between the well length and the extrapolation depth. In particular, in extrapolation to a depth twice as large as the well depth the relative error is 5–6% and in case of threefold excess, the error is around 20%. This result makes it possible to increase significantly the depth of indirect temperature estimation in the Earth's interior (in particular, for geothermal exploration) based on the available temperature logs.
The practical application of an indirect electromagnetic geothermometer could provide the following facilities: 1) more exact temperature estimation in the extrapolation mode; 2) remote temperature estimates in the boreholes in areas characterized by extreme conditions for conventional geothermometers.     

Estimation of the temperature in the Earth’s interior from surface measurements of the electromagnetic field

The possibility of contactless remote estimation of the temperature in the Earth’s interior from surface magnetotelluric (MT) measurements is examined. The neuronet analysis of MT and temperature measurements in the Bishkek geodynamic research area (the Northern Tien Shan) showed that a contactless electromagnetic geothermometer can in principle be realized. An optimal method including MT measurements and treatment of available thermograms is developed. The method minimizes uncertainties of the remote temperature estimation. The use of six to eight thermograms for calibration of electromagnetic data is shown to provide a 12% relative error of prediction, and a priori geological information available for the region under study can reduce this error. Areas of practical application of a contactless electromagnetic geothermometer are outlined.     

The importance of including conductivity and dielectric permittivity information when processing low-frequency GPR and high-frequency EMI data sets

The full solution for the wavenumber equation in electromagnetic (EM) theory is available, but not routinely used when processing ground penetrating radar (GPR), and electromagnetic induction (EMI) data. The wavenumber approach is important as it is used for the development of concepts such as skin depth and phase velocity, as well as being the basis for more complete interpretation of EM data sets. Approximations that make the solution simpler are common, and sufficiently accurate, provided that the underlying assumptions are not grossly violated. With the advent of lower-frequency GPR systems (25 MHz and below) and higher-frequency EMI systems (greater than 100 kHz) such approximations need to be re-examined. This paper reviews the full wavenumber expression and then compares phase velocity and skin depth equations based on approximations with the equations for the same parameter based on the full solution. This comparison allows the conditions under which the assumptions are valid to be refined. In this paper it is shown that for GPR surveys conducted under transition band conditions, the error in phase velocity estimates based on low-loss assumptions may be 40%. Similarly, for EMI surveys the skin depth estimation errors may be more than 30% when the equation based on quasi-static assumptions is used instead of the full solution.     

Interpretation of Magnetotelluric Results Using Laboratory Measurements

Magnetotelluric (MT) surveying is a remote sensing technique of the crust and mantle based on electrical conductivity that provides constraints to our knowledge of the structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. This paper presents a review of electrical measurements in the laboratory applied to the understanding of MT profiles. In particular, the purpose of such a review is to make the laboratory technique accessible to geophysicists by pointing out the main caveats regarding a careful use of laboratory data to interpret electromagnetic profiles. First, this paper addresses the main issues of cross-spatial-scale comparisons. For brevity, these issues are restricted to reproducing in the laboratory the texture, structure of the sample as well as conditions prevailing in the Earth’s interior (pressure, temperature, redox conditions, time). Second, some critical scientific questions that have motivated laboratory-based interpretation of electromagnetic profiles are presented. This section will focus on the characterization of the presence and distribution of hydrogen in the Earth’s crust and mantle, the investigation of electrical anisotropy in the asthenosphere and the interpretation of highly conductive field anomalies. In a last section, the current and future challenges to improve quantitative interpretation of MT profiles are discussed. These challenges correspond to technical improvements in the laboratory and the field as well as the integration of other disciplines, such as petrology, rheology and seismology.     

Cancelling directional EM noise in magnetoteilurics1

The prospecting of densely urbanized areas by the measurement of magnetic and electric natural fields is severely hampered by electromagnetic (EM) noise. Active man-made EM noise sources can generally be considered fixed in space, thus affecting the magnetotelluric (MT) signals of a measuring site mainly along their polarization directions. Taking advantage of the impulsive nature of polarized EM noise, a time-domain directional noise cancelling (DNC) technique is proposed. The comparison of noisy data with data predicted, using a low noise reference signal or with data interpolated whenever no reference is available, allows the detection of the most likely noise sources with prevailing directional patterns using a Bayes's criterion. The DNC approach is general and can be adapted, depending on the reference signal used (single-site or remote-reference). In field data, hodograms of the prediction residuals basically confirm the directional noise model assumed in DNC. An example is presented in which the DNC technique has been applied to a single-site MT survey carried out in northern Italy, where the signal was heavily corrupted by noise with prevailing directional properties due to the densely urbanized area. MT apparent resistivities and phases obtained at the site of the survey before and after DNC are presented and discussed.     

Effect of coupling noise on the interpretation of results of electromagnetic horizontal sounding and modeling

The time variation of a source of alternating current produces an electromagnetic coupling between the transmitting and receiving systems in induced electrical polarization and resistivity surveys that employ horizontal electrical sounding. The coupling alters, sometimes significantly, the resistivity and chargeability values and, consequently, compromises the interpretation of the data. This work develops the analysis of this coupling on the time domain for both a homogeneous Earth and an Earth constituted of several homogeneous horizontal layers. Based on the results, it evaluates the theoretical variation of the voltage and compares it to observed data of an induced electrical polarization and resistivity survey with horizontal electrical sounding. The comparative study of the voltage decay curves assesses the contribution of the electromagnetic coupling to the values of the chargeability and apparent resistivity as a function of the bipole length and the period of the source current. Besides that, the respective pseudosections have delineated the horizontal and vertical variations of those two electrical properties, providing the interpretation of the geoelectrical section. This research is important for the oil industry because it may furnish information that help to: (i) define the structure of the sedimentary strata; (ii) estimate the clay content of the sandstones; and (iii) detect the possible presence of metallic sulphide halos at fractured zones of the sediments above the oil reservoir. It may be adapted to analysis of EM coupling in both resistive and induced electric well logs.     

Lithospheric structures across the Qiman Tagh and western Qaidam Basin revealed by magnetotelluric data collected using a self-developed SEP system

Science China Earth Sciences - Geophysics offers an important means to investigate the physical processes occurring inside the earth. In particular, since the 1960s, electromagnetic (EM) methods...     

Numerical simulation and inversion of MT fields in the 3D electric conductivity model of the Vesuvius volcano

Possibilities for three-dimensional (3D) magnetotelluric (MT) sounding of local objects contained in the Earth’s crust are estimated in a case study of the magma chamber of the Vesuvius volcano. Stochastic inversion of the model MT data by the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method has shown that the most efficient approach is not simultaneous but successive estimation of the geometry and the depth of the anomaly and the assessment of the conductivity distribution within the anomalous region. A zone of equivalence is revealed between the a priori estimate of the depth of the anomalous zone and the a posteriori distribution of electric conductivity within it. Based on the present estimation and previous results, an algorithm for determination of the parameters of local crustal anomaly is proposed.     

基于同步大地电磁时间序列依赖关系的噪声处理

本文从信号与系统的角度讨论了同步大地电磁时间序列信号之间的依赖关系,选取高信噪比的时间序列信号作为先验数据,用最小二乘法估算依赖关系;结合参考道的数据,合成本地道含噪声时段的数据,最后用合成数据替代噪声段数据,组成新数据,从而在时域中去除大地电磁噪声.西藏地区高信噪比实测数据的试算结果表明,无论电场还是磁场,信号之间的依赖关系是相对稳定的,只与先验数据的长度有关,与时间无关;虽然不同参考点之间的依赖关系不同,但都可以精确合成本地点数据,与参考点地下电性结构和参考距离无关.仿真实验显示,去噪后的信号与原始信号基本一致.实测数据处理结果表明,该方法可以有效去除强噪声干扰,抑制中高频段的近场源效应,同时保留了微弱的有效信号,保证了处理结果的正确性.最后针对方差比方法无法识别的方波噪声,提出了一种简单的平移方法,成功去除了持续时间大于窗口长度的方波噪声;将该方法与远参考技术结合,可以有效抑制近场源噪声干扰,获得光滑连续并且可信的测深资料.     

STUDY ON THE ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ANQIU AND JUXIAN ELECTROMAGNETIC STATIONS IN THE TANLU FAULT ZONE

The Yishu fault zone is one of the branch faults of the Tanlu fault zone in its central part. Moderate and strong earthquakes occurred in the Yishu fault zone repeatedly. Due to its complex structure, the Yishu fault zone attracts much attention from earthquake researches. The Anqiu and Juxian electromagnetic stations in Shandong Province locate near the Anqiu-Juxian Fault and Changyi-Dadian Fault, which are branches of the Yishu fault zone, respectively. Geoelectric field and geomagnetic field observation were carried out in these two stations. The Wudi electromagnetic station is in the west of Tanlu fault zone in the Jidong-Bohai block and 230km from Anqiu electromagnetic station. This paper firstly describes the crustal structure near the electromagnetic stations by using magnetotelluric(MT)method. By processing the data carefully, we obtain the MT data in good quality near the stations. The MT data of each electromagnetic station and its nearby area suggests that the electrical structure and geological structure of the station are comparable. This paper applied 1-D and 2-D inversion for MT data and obtained the crustal electrical structure model beneath the Anqiu and Juxian seismic station. The shallow electrical structure from the MT method was compared with the results of symmetrical quadrupole electrical sounding. The model suggests that the electrical structure beneath the Anqiu and Juxian electromagnetic stations is complex and shows the feature of block boundary. The Wudi electromagnetic station is located inside a basin, the crustal structure shows layered feature typical for the stable blocks. Beneath the Anqiu electromagnetic station, there is a 1km-thick relative low resistivity layer in the shallow crust and a high resistivity body beneath it with a depth of 13km. There is a high resistivity structure in the crust beneath the Juxian electromagnetic station. The crustal structures are divided into two different parts by Anqiu-Juxian Fault and Changyi-Dadian Fault, respectively. More conductive layers appear to the west of the two faults. Plenty of fluid possibly exists within the conductive body to the west of Changyi-Dadian Fault, which plays important role in the earthquake generation. There is a relative low resistivity layer in the crust within 1~2km beneath the Wudi electromagnetic station. Beneath the relatively low resistivity layer, a relatively high resistivity layer extends to a depth of around 15km, and the resistivity value decreases with the increase of depth. The electrical resistivity model suggests the seismic activity of the Yishu fault zone around the Anqiu and Juxian electromagnetic stations should be taken into account seriously, and monitoring and research on it need to be strengthened. The results of this paper provide a certain reference value for the crustal structure research to similar stations.     

LONG-OFFSET TRANSIENT EM SOUNDING NORTH OF THE RHINE-RUHR COAL DISTRICT,GERMANY1

During the past two decades electromagnetic methods have been increasingly applied to problems in hydrocarbon exploration. It has been shown that EM methods achieve satisfactory results which can be supplementary to results of the seismic method. We extend the application of the Long-Offset Transient ElectroMagnetic Sounding (lotem ) to exploration problems in the coal mining industry. A survey was conducted north of the Rhine-Ruhr coal district using a grounded dipole source and receivers laid out along several profile lines giving areal coverage. The strong noise from cultural as well as natural electromagnetic sources was reduced using prestack data processing techniques resulting in reliable data with a good signal-to-noise ratio. The interpretation is self-consistent and matches the well logs and the geological information of the area quite well. The high station density permitted the mapping of the top of the Carboniferous formation to a depth of between 800 and 1000 m below surface.     

海洋电磁低时钟漂移及自动增益采集技术研究

作为地震探测的有效补充,电磁法在海洋油气资源勘探中发挥着越来越重要的作用.本文针对海洋电磁法中极低时钟误差、大动态范围采集等要求,提出使用GPS和高精度原子钟解决低时钟漂移问题;采集电路中设计增益可调的放大电路,MCU通过对采集到的信号进行实时分析,实现增益动态调整,解决海洋电磁信号大动态范围采集问题;研制的海洋电磁信号数据记录单元每天时间误差小于0.3 ms、电场通道动态范围可以达到160 dB、磁场通道动态范围可以达到134 dB.通过在室内指标测试、室外试验,表明设计的数据记录单元能够稳定可靠工作.为证明数据纪录单元的有效性,将数据记录单元和国外商用MT仪器进行野外一致性对比实验,数据记录单元与商用仪器结果基本一致;在水深100 m海域进行了海底MT信号采集,得到了有效的结果.该研究为海洋电磁信号低时钟漂移、大动态范围采集提供了一种有效解决方案.     

Deriving TDS values in coarse sediments from long normal and electromagnetic logs

This paper presents an empirical relationship of quantitatively linked electromagnetic (EM) borehole recordings of the total dissolved solids (TDS) in pore water in the Quaternary deposits of the Belgian coastal plain. First, the long normal (LN) logs are linked to EM logs, then the already developed relationships between LN resistivity measurements and the TDS values are rewritten for EM recordings. The main parameter in these equations is the formation factor, which is derived from ground water analyses and LN logs through Archie's law. The EM recording has several advantages compared to the LN logs. The EM analysis allows measuring in PVC-cased wells and is not hindered by the invasion zone around the well. Furthermore, it has a high vertical resolution. LN logs can be measured only once, after drilling a well; EM recordings can be repeated several times in monitoring wells, which allows the gathering of time-dependent data over a complete vertical cross section. Such data could be obtained with LN logs only in wells with screens over the full-depth interval, which causes a hydraulic short circuit. This short circuit can result in a large artificial flow through the well between different levels, resulting in a salinity profile, which is no longer representative for the studied site. Remediation against short circuiting is a reduction of the screened interval, which strongly reduces the gathered information. The application of the derived equations is one of setting up a monitoring network along the Belgian coast to monitor the trend in salinity levels and comparing present salinity levels with older LN recordings to investigate the salinity changes in the last 30 years. Deep wells already present in the Belgiancoastal plain can then be used to monitor both the fresh water head changes and the salt water evolution. The technique has also been used for parameter identification for which real concentration measurements were needed.     

Electromagnetic soundings of the sedimentary cover and consolidated crust in the transition zone from the Moscow syneclise to the Voronezh anteclise: Problems and prospects

The methods and results of electromagnetic soundings (EMS) performed in the transition zone from the Moscow syneclise to the Voronezh anteclise in the vicinity of the MSU geophysical base are considered. This base is located in the village of Aleksandrovka in the Yukhnov district of Kaluga area. The composite EMS curves characterizing rock complexes composing the sedimentary cover are constructed, and changes in these complexes within the specified transition zone are traced. The standard curves of magnetotelluric (MT) and magnetovariational (MV) soundings are constructed from the results of long-term measurements at the ALX observation point located at the Moscow State University’s (MSU) geophysical base. The maps of thickness and total longitudinal conductance of the sedimentary cover are constructed from the results of interpretation of MT data obtained in the region. A conductor in the consolidated Earth’s crust is identified within the Voronezh anteclise. Prospects for further investigations of the region are associated with the tracing of the crustal conductor within the Voronezh anteclise, as well as with the organization of an observatory at the MSU’s geophysical base in order to perform long-term measurements of the electromagnetic (EM) and other geophysical fields.     

四川地区深度小于30m钻孔的估计方法

本文收集了733个四川地区的实测钻孔数据,从中筛选出深度大于30m的268个钻孔剖面资料。分别获得了10m、15m、20m、25m和28m不同深度处的平均剪切波速 与 的对数线性相关关系。同时还与Boore（2004）的结果做了对比分析,比较了采用常数外推法和对数线性外推法得到的不同深度处剪切波速的残差分布。结果表明,不同深度处剪切波速 与 的对数相关关系可能具有一定的区域性特征,本文得到的对数关系更适合四川地区。对数线性外推法与常数外推法相比,前者的系统偏差更小;随着深度的增加,两种方法的外推误差均逐渐减小,但常数外推法普遍低估了 值;当深度较浅时,低估的情况更为明显。本文的研究结果为利用大量的不足30m的钻孔资料估计 值提供了参考。     

大地电磁响应函数估算中改进的多道相关函数法及误差的综合评价

近年来,有关大地电磁响应函数估算中消除偏离误差、减少随机误差、评价结果质量方面已有许多研究。Lienert等（1980）提出的多道相关函数法以下式为基础:     

Reflection of Strong 2020–2021 Baikal Rift Earthquakes in the Earth’s Magnetotelluric Field Observation Data

Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth - Abstract—In this paper, we explore the findings of monitoring the components of the Earth’s natural electromagnetic (EM) field obtained in...     

Electromagnetic‐Induction Logging to Monitor Changing Chloride Concentrations

Water from the San Joaquin Delta, having chloride concentrations up to 3590 mg/L, has intruded fresh water aquifers underlying Stockton, California. Changes in chloride concentrations at depth within these aquifers were evaluated using sequential electromagnetic (EM) induction logs collected during 2004 through 2007 at seven multiple‐well sites as deep as 268 m. Sequential EM logging is useful for identifying changes in groundwater quality through polyvinyl chloride‐cased wells in intervals not screened by wells. These unscreened intervals represent more than 90% of the aquifer at the sites studied. Sequential EM logging suggested degrading groundwater quality in numerous thin intervals, typically between 1 and 7 m in thickness, especially in the northern part of the study area. Some of these intervals were unscreened by wells, and would not have been identified by traditional groundwater sample collection. Sequential logging also identified intervals with improving water quality—possibly due to groundwater management practices that have limited pumping and promoted artificial recharge. EM resistivity was correlated with chloride concentrations in sampled wells and in water from core material. Natural gamma log data were used to account for the effect of aquifer lithology on EM resistivity. Results of this study show that a sequential EM logging is useful for identifying and monitoring the movement of high‐chloride water, having lower salinities and chloride concentrations than sea water, in aquifer intervals not screened by wells, and that increases in chloride in water from wells in the area are consistent with high‐chloride water originating from the San Joaquin Delta rather than from the underlying saline aquifer.     

基于PCA-RBF神经网络的航空飞行几何参数拟合

采用地面异常线圈对直升机时域航空电磁探测系统进行标定时,发射-接收线圈姿态的变化将导致实测数据产生误差,影响标定的精度.本文基于时间域航空电磁系统,计算了发射-接收线圈姿态任意变化时异常线圈的电磁响应,提出了主成分分析-径向基神经网络(PCA-RBF)的拟合算法,采用主成分分析法提取飞行几何参数的贡献率,利用径向基神经网络法对电磁响应进行了测线剖面的批量数据拟合,并对理论仿真和河南桐柏直升机飞行试验数据进行拟合分析,单一异常体理论数据的绝对误差平均值小于20nV·m-2,双异常体理论数据绝对误差平均值为160nV·m-2.野外实测数据在异常线圈中心位置的拟合相对误差小于1%,整条剖面测线的拟合相对误差小于±6%,平均值为2.5%.结果表明PCA-RBF拟合算法能够较好地实现航空电磁系统飞行参数的拟合,为航空电磁系统海量实测数据的快速处理提供了新方法.