Temporal relationship between Holocene human occupation and vegetation change along the northwestern margin of the Central African rainforest

This paper discusses the relationship between patterns of human settlements and environmental change during the Holocene along the northwestern margins of the equatorial rain forest of central Africa. Palaeoenvironmental data from high-resolution sediment cores from lacustrine deposits, plant macro-remains from forest soils, and archaeological data are harnessed to discuss the differential impact of climate and/or humans on the central African rain forest. It is shown that climate change impacted the rain forest well before the widespread expansion of human settlements all over the study area.     

Differences in the crab fauna of mangrove areas at a southwest Florida and a northeast Australia location: Implications for leaf litter processing

Existing paradigms suggest that mangrove leaf litter is processed primarily via the detrital pathway in forests in the Caribbean biogeographic realm whereas herbivorous crabs are relatively more important litter processors in the Indo-West Pacific. To test this hypothesis, we used pitfall traps to collect intertidal crabs to characterize the crab fauna in a mangrove estuary in southwest Florida. We also tethered mangrove leaves to determine if herbivorous crabs are major leaf consumers there. We compared the results with previously published data collected in an analogous manner from forests in northeastern Australia. The crab fauna in Rookery Bay, Florida, is dominated by carnivorous xanthid and deposit-feeding ocypodid crabs whereas that of the Murray River in northeastern Australia is dominated by herbivorous grapsid crabs. No leaves tethered at five sites in the forests in Southwest Florida were taken by crabs. This contrasts greatly with reported values of leaf removal by crabs in Australian forests of 28–79% of the leaves reaching the forest floor. These differences in the faunal assemblages and in the fate of marked or tethered leaves provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that leaf litter is in fact processed in fundamentally different ways in the two biogeographic realms.     

Distribution patterns and stable carbon isotopic composition of alkanes and alkan-1-ols from plant waxes of African rain forest and savanna C3 species

Leaf wax components of terrestrial plants are an important source of biomass in the geological records of soils, lakes and marine sediments. Relevant to the emerging use of plant wax derived biomarkers as proxies for past vegetation composition this study provides key data for C₃ plants of tropical and subtropical Africa. We present analytical results for 45 savanna species and 24 rain forest plants sampled in their natural habitats. Contents and distribution patterns of long chain n-alkanes (n-C₂₅ to n-C₃₅) and n-alkan-1-ols (n-C₂₄ to n-C₃₄) as well as bulk and molecular carbon isotopic data are presented. The variations of the analysed parameters among different growth forms (herb, shrub, liana and tree) are small within the vegetation zones, whereas characteristic differences occur between the signatures of rain forest and savanna plants. Therefore, we provide averaged histogram representations for rain forest and savanna C₃ plants.The findings were compared to previously published data of typical C₄ grass waxes of tropical and subtropical Africa. Generally, trends to longer n-alkane chains and less negative carbon isotopic values are evident from rain forest over C₃ savanna to C₄ vegetation. For n-alkanols of rain forest plants the maximum of the averaged distribution pattern is between those of C₃ savanna plants and C₄ grasses. The averaged presentations for tropical and subtropical vegetation and their characteristics may constitute useful biomarker proxies for studies analysing the expansion and contraction of African vegetation zones.     

广东岩溶丘陵的分布及土地利用模式探讨

广东省岩溶丘陵总面积1827km2,岩溶丘陵对于广东山区农林业发展和全省生态环境保护意义重大。本文基于实地调查和已有数据对广东省溶蚀低丘陵、溶蚀-侵蚀低丘陵、溶蚀高丘陵和溶蚀-侵蚀高丘陵四种不同类型岩溶丘陵的分布区域、面积、特点和土地利用现状及问题进行了分析。结果表明,岩溶丘陵在广东分布广而散,以粤北居多,面积达到1389.44km2,占总岩溶丘陵面积的76%,而粤西、粤东为351.92km2和86.36km2,分别占总岩溶丘陵面积的19%和5%。岩溶丘陵具备相对好的农业开发潜力,但目前大多处于无序和不合理的利用状态,盲目毁林致使生态退化加剧的潜在危险不断增加。针对土地利用现状问题及岩溶丘陵的生态特征,提出了岩溶盆地区以生态林+经济林+经济作物、岩溶高原区以生态林+薪炭林+经济植物、溶蚀-侵蚀丘陵区以速生用材林栽植、英德和连山风景区以生态旅游、粤东及粤北已有矿区以生态林+矿产开发的五种开发模式。      

The igapó of the Negro River in central Amazonia: Linking late-successional inundation forest with fluvial geomorphology

Despite important progress on Amazonian floodplain research, the flooded forest of the Negro River “igapó” has been little investigated. In particular, no study has previously focused the linkage between fluvial geomorphology and the floristic variation across the course of the river. In this paper we describe and interpret relations between igapó forest, fluvial geomorphology and the spatial evolution of the igapó forest through the Holocene. Therefore, we investigate the effect of geomorphological units of the floodplain and channel patterns on tree diversity, composition and structural parameters of the late-successional igapó forest. Our results show that sites sharing almost identical flooding regime, exhibit variable tree assemblages, species richness and structural parameters such as basal area, tree density and tree heights, indicating a trend in which the geomorphologic styles seem to partially control the organization of igapó's tree communities. This can be also explained by the high variability of well-developed geomorphologic units in short distances and concentrated in small areas. In this dynamic the inputs from the species pool of tributary rivers play a crucial role, but also the depositional and erosional processes associated with the evolution of the floodplain during the Holocene may control floristic and structural components of the igapó forests. These results suggest that a comprehensive approach integrating floristic and geomorphologic methods is needed to understand the distribution of the complex vegetation patterns in complex floodplains such as the igapó of the Negro River. This combination of approaches may introduce a better comprehension of the temporal and spatial evolutionary analysis and a logic rationale to understand the vegetation distribution and variability in function of major landforms, soil distributions and hydrology. Thus, by integrating the past into macroecological analyses will sharpen our understanding of the underlying forces for contemporary floristic patterns along the inundation forests of the Negro River.     

Application of soil-gas geochemistry to mineral exploration in Africa

Field methods of soil-gas analysis for CO₂, O₂, Rn and Tn are described and applied to the exploration for copper sulphide and gold/sulphide mineralisation in terrains ranging from tropical rain forest to sand desert in Africa. CO₂ concentrations are high in soil gases overlying sulphide-bearing mineralisation and the patterns can be followed under increasing cover of sand to a depth of several tens of metres. The radioactive gases show promise in the mapping of basic rocks which are potential hosts to gold mineralisation. Strong seasonal effects on the CO₂ distribution are noted in tropical rain forests, the absolute levels being much higher during or following the rainy season.     

The dynamic nature of Holocene vegetation : A problem in paleoclimatology, biogeography, and stratigraphic nomenclature

For more than a century it has been postulated that the Holocene vegetation of western Europe has changed in significant ways. A half-century ago a lively debate revolved on whether there were one or two dry intervals causing bogs to dry out and become forested, or whether instead the climate warmed to a maximum and then cooled. Today none of these climatic schemes is accepted without reservation, because two nonclimatic factors are recognized as significant: the differential immigration rates of dominant tree types (e.g., spruce in the north and beech in the south) brought unexpected changes in forest composition, and Neolithic man cleared the forest for agriculture and thereby disrupted the natural plant associations.In North America some of the same problems exist. In the hardwood forests of the Northeast, which are richer than but otherwise not unlike those of western Europe, the successive spread of white pine, hemlock, beech, hickory, and chestnut into oakdominated forests provides a pollen sequence that may yield no climatic message. On the other hand, on the ecotone between these hardwood forests and the conifer forests of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence area, the southward expansion of spruce, fir, and tamarack in the late Holocene implies a climatic cooling of regional importance, although the progressive conversion of lakes to wetlands favored the expansion of wetland forms of these genera.In the southeastern states the late-Holocene expansion of southern pines has uncertain climatic significance. About all that can be said about the distribution and ecology of the 10 or so species is that some of them favor sandy soils and are adapted to frequent fires. In coastal areas the expansion of pines was accompanied by development of great swamps like Okefenokee and the Everglades—perhaps related to the stabilization of the water table after the early Holocene rise of sea level. The vegetation replaced by the pines in Florida consisted of oak scrub with prairie-like openings, indicating dry early Holocene conditions, which in fact had also prevailed during the time of Wisconsin glaciation.In the Midwest the vegetation history provides a clearer record of Holocene climatic change, at least along the prairie border in Minnesota. With the withdrawal of the boreal spruce forest soon after ice retreat, pine forest and hardwood forest succeeded rapidly, as in the eastern states. But prairie was not far behind. By 7000 years ago the prairie had advanced into east-central Minnesota, 75 miles east of its present limit. It then withdrew to the west, as hardwoods expanded again, followed by conifers from the north. The sequence easily fits the paleoclimatic concept of gradual warming and drying to a maximum, followed by cooling to the present day. It is supported by independent fossil evidence from lake sediments, showing that lakes were shallow or even intermittently dry during mid-Holocene time.Here we have a paleoclimatic pattern that is consistent with the record from glaciers in the western mountains—a record that involves a late-Holocene Neoglaciation after a mid-Holocene interval of distant glacial recession. Just as the Neoglaciation is time-transgressive, according to the review of its evidence by Porter and Denton, so also is the mid-Holocene episode of maximum warmth, and they are thus both geologicclimate units. The warm episode is commonly termed the Hypsithermal, which, however, was defined by Deevey and Flint as a time-stratigraphic unit that is supposed to have time-parallel rather than time-transgressive boundaries. It was defined on the basis of pollen-zone boundaries in western Europe and the northeastern United States that have a sound biogeographic but questionable paleoclimatic basis. Perhaps it should be redefined as Porter and Denton suggest, as a geologic-climate unit with recognizable time-transgressive boundaries that match the gradual geographic shifts in the general circulation of the atmosphere and the resulting location of storm tracks and weather patterns. Holocene glacial and vegetational progressions provide a good record of climatic change, if one can work out the lag effects related to the glacial economy and the geographic factors controlling tree migration. The terminology for the Holocene, where so much time control is available, should indicate the dynamic character not only of the climate but also of the geologic and biogeographic processes controlled by climate.     

Orbital scale vegetation change in Africa

Palynological records of Middle and Late Pleistocene marine sediments off African shores is reviewed in order to reveal long-term patterns of vegetation change during climate cycles. Whether the transport of pollen and spores from the source areas on the continent to the ocean floor is mainly by wind or predominantly by rivers depends on the region. Despite the differences in transportation, accumulation rates in the marine sediments decline exponentially with distance to the shore. The marine sediments provide well-dated records presenting the vegetation history of the main biomes of western and southern Africa. The extent of different biomes varied with the climate changes of the glacial interglacial cycle. The Mediterranean forest area expanded during interglacials, the northern Saharan desert during glacials, and the semi-desert area in between during the transitions. In the sub-Saharan mountains ericaceous scrubland spread mainly during glacials and the mountainous forest area often increased during intermediate periods. Savannahs extended or shifted to lower latitudes during glacials. While the representation of the tropical rain forest fluctuated with summer insolation and precession, that of the subtropical biomes showed more obliquity variability or followed the pattern of glacial and interglacials.     

Fifty-thousand-year vegetation and climate history of Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivian Amazon

Pollen and charcoal records from two large, shallow lakes reveal that throughout most of the past 50,000 yr Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in northeastern lowland Bolivia (southwestern Amazon Basin), was predominantly covered by savannas and seasonally dry semideciduous forests. Lowered atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, in combination with a longer dry season, caused expansion of dry forests and savannas during the last glacial period, especially at the last glacial maximum. These ecosystems persisted until the mid-Holocene, although they underwent significant species reassortment. Forest communities containing a mixture of evergreen and semideciduous species began to expand between 6000 and 3000 ¹⁴C yr B.P. Humid evergreen rain forests expanded to cover most of the area within the past 2000 ¹⁴C yr B.P., coincident with a reduction in fire frequencies. Comparisons between modern pollen spectra and vegetation reveal that the Moraceae-dominated rain forest pollen spectra likely have a regional source area at least 2-3 km beyond the lake shore, whereas the grass- and sedge-dominated savanna pollen spectra likely have a predominantly local source area. The Holocene vegetation changes are consistent with independent paleoprecipitation records from the Bolivian Altiplano and paleovegetation records from other parts of southwestern Amazonia. The progressive expansion in rain forests through the Holocene can be largely attributed to enhanced convective activity over Amazonia, due to greater seasonality of insolation in the Southern Hemisphere tropics driven by the precession cycle according to the Milankovitch Astronomical Theory.     

Comparative Phylogeography of North American Atlantic Salt Marsh Communities

Identifying differential population structure within metacommunities is key toward describing the mechanisms that maintain biodiversity in natural systems. At both local and regional scales on the North American Atlantic coast, we assessed phylogeographic and genetic diversity patterns of six common salt marsh invertebrates using equivalent sampling schemes and sequence data from the same mitochondrial locus. In general, our results suggest little genetic structure across four previously sampled biogeographic regions and a slight increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern areas; however, two of the species (Geukensia demissa and Uca pugilator) exhibited significant differentiation between the northernmost populations and other regions, consistent with a number of previous studies. Although the minimal genetic structure recovered in this community is consistent with expectations based on the larval life history of the species examined, confirmation of this result suggests that latitudinal shifts in ecological interactions in salt marsh systems are environmentally driven, rather than due to heritable adaptation.     

High-resolution pollen record from core KW31, Gulf of Guinea, documents the history of the lowland forests of West Equatorial Africa since 40,000 yr ago

Pollen data from core KW31 recovered off the mouth of the Niger River (3°31′1N–05°341E; 1181 m water depth) provide an exceptional record of vegetation changes in the West African lowlands between 40,000 and 3500 cal yr B.P. The highly diverse microflora testify for the permanency of rain and secondary forests in the Niger river catchment, at least as gallery formations along rivers, during the last glacial period when dry conditions occurred in relation to enhanced trade-wind circulation. The direct consequence of the post-glacial warming and the correlative increase in monsoon fluxes over West Africa was the increase in forest diversity and the expansion of rain and secondary forests on the nearby continent. Comparison between KW31 pollen record and continental pollen data from 5°S to 25°N allows the evaluation of migration rates of tropical forest populations throughout North West Africa at the beginning of the Holocene and the vegetation response to the shift toward aridity recorded widely at the end of the African Humid Period around 4000 cal yr B.P.     

Late Quaternary vegetation dynamics in a biodiversity hotspot, the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania

Late Quaternary vegetation history and environmental changes in a biodiverse tropical ecosystem are inferred from pollen, charcoal and carbon isotope evidence derived from a ∼ 48,000-yr sedimentary record from the Uluguru Mountains, a component of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Kenya and Tanzania. Results indicate that Eastern Arc forest composition has remained relatively stable during the past ∼ 48,000 yr. Long-term environmental stability of the Eastern Arc forests has been proposed as a mechanism for the accumulation and persistence of species during glacial periods, thus resulting in the diverse forests observed today. The pollen and isotope data presented here indicate some marked changes in abundance but no significant loss in moist forest taxa through the last glacial maximum, thereby providing support for the long-term environmental stability of the Eastern Arc. Anthropogenic activities, including burning and forest clearance, were found to play a moderate role in shaping the mosaic of forest patches and high-altitude grasslands that characterise the site today; however, this influence was tempered by the inaccessibility of the mountain.     

Seasonal and altitudinal structure of drosophilid communities on Mt Oku (Cameroon volcanic line)

We assessed the potential of drosophilids as indicators of the response of tropical ecosystems to climatic factors over an annual cycle in the montane forest of Mt Oku, by collecting samples at seven sites evenly spaced from 2200 m to 2800 m asl. Only 0.1% of the 11,000 specimens collected belonged to invading species or those commensal with humans, showing the weakness of anthropogenic factors. Species abundance was highly skewed. One species, Zaprionus vittiger, made up 81% of the sample, whereas 42 of the 62 morphological species found were represented by fewer than 20 individuals. Many of the most abundant species occurred over a narrow period, in the dry or in the rainy season, others also occurred at intervening periods. These different patterns of population dynamics, determined a succession of species over the annual cycle. Abundant species departed significantly from each other in their distribution over collection sites. The drosophilid populations from the central African montane forests are highly dependent on climatic factors, either directly, or indirectly through climatic effects on the biotic environment of the insects.     

Impoverishment of recent floodplain forest mollusc fauna in the lower Ohře River (Czech Republic) as a result of prehistoric human impact

Analyses of fossil mollusc successions have rarely been used to study the development of floodplain forests during the Holocene. The Oh?e River, located in a prehistorically settled chernozem area in the Czech Republic, is partly situated in Cretaceous marlstones, yielding sediments suitable for fossilization directly in floodplain deposits. We analysed five fossil mollusc successions situated in the lower stretch of the Oh?e River and compared the results with recent mollusc assemblages studied along the entire 256 km of the river. Fossil samples were composed mostly of open‐country species throughout the Holocene or the whole preserved succession. Only some samples also contained woodland assemblages, but these were always greatly impoverished, with a very low frequency of strictly woodland species. Although the natural‐looking appearance of the present‐day floodplain forests of the lower river stretch has resulted in its being declared a nature reserve, modern floodplain forest mollusc assemblages there are also impoverished. This reduction in the distribution of strictly woodland species compared with modern assemblages in the upper stretch of the river seems to be the result of an ancient human settlement and continuous disturbances of the floodplain forest development since the Neolithic. Thus, fully developed floodplain forest assemblages occur recently only in the upper non‐impacted stretch of the river. Based on the studied fossil successions we can conclude that the lower Oh?e River floodplain was probably a mosaic of open and disturbed forest habitats throughout the Holocene. This area is part of a central European landscape island, where forests probably never fully developed and open patches from the early Holocene continually developed into an agricultural landscape.     

Late-Quaternary biogeographic scenarios for the brown bear (Ursus arctos), a wild mammal model species

This review provides an up-to-date synthesis of the matrilineal phylogeography of a uniquely well-studied Holarctic mammal, the brown bear. We extend current knowledge by presenting a DNA sequence derived from one of the earliest known fossils of a polar bear (dated to 115 000 years before present), a species that shares a paraphyletic mitochondrial association with brown bears. A molecular clock analysis of 140 mitochondrial DNA sequences, including our new polar bear sequence, provides novel insights into the times of origin for different brown bear clades. We propose a number of regional biogeographic scenarios based on genetic data, divergence time estimates and paleontological records. The case of the brown bear provides an example for researchers working with less well-studied taxa: it shows clearly that phylogeographic models based on patterns of modern genetic variation alone can be substantially improved by including data on historical patterns of genetic diversity in the form of ancient DNA sequences derived from accurately dated samples and by using an approach to divergence-time estimation that suits the data under analysis. Using such approaches it has been possible to (i) establish that the processes shaping modern genetic diversity in brown bears acted recently, within the last three glacial cycles; (ii) distinguish among hypotheses concerning species’ responses to climatic oscillations in accordance with the lack of phylogeographic structure that existed in brown bears prior to the last glacial maximum (LGM); (iii) reassess theories linking monophyletic brown bear populations to particular LGM refuge areas; and (iv) identify vicariance events and track analogous patterns of migration by brown bears out of Eurasia to North America and Japan.     

Canopy dieback in the upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka

In 1978 a patch of dying upper montane rain forest had been observed on the slope of Thotupolakanda above Horton Plains. Patches in the upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka were also recorded in 1980/81. All these sites were on windswept western slopes and ridges with stunted tree growth and shallow soil. From 1971 to 1983 Sri Lanka experienced some exceptionally dry years. The severe droughts of 1976 might have cause or “triggered” that dieback. After heavy rains between 1983 and 1986, these forests showed signs of recovery. Some trees had survived and sprouted again. Tree saplings were found, but regeneration was very low and further impeded by serious frost in February 1986. The influence of drought and frost clearly indicates the vulnerability of the stunted upper montane rain forest in the highest and wind-exposed regions of Sri Lanka.     

Distribution and abundance of grapsid crabs (Grapsidae) in a mangrove estuary: Effects of sediment characteristics,salinity tolerances,and osmoregulatory ability

Crabs (Grapsidae,Sesarma) are the dominant macrofaunal group of mangrove forest soils in northern Australia. Little is known about the ecology of these crabs or the factors that influence their distribution in mangrove forests. Pitfall traps were used to sample grapsid crabs in the Murray River estuary in north Queensland. Sampling was conducted at five sites along a salinity gradient from <1‰ at upstream sites to >35‰ at the river mouth. At each site, trapping was done in both low and high intertidal forests. We characterized the sediments at each site by measuring percent sand, silt, clay and organic matter, Eh, pH, and soil pore-water salinity. Four species of grapsids dominated the crab fauna along the Murray River (Sesarma semperi-longicristatum, S. messa, S. brevicristatum, andS. brevipes). Distinct zonation patterns were found along the salinity gradient and between high and low intertidal forests.S. messa was dominant in high intertidal, downstream forests, high and low intertidal forests in the middle to downstream portion of the river, and in low intertidal forests in the central reach of the river.S. brevipes was dominant in both low and high intertidal zone forests at low salinity upstream sites.S. brevicristatum was most abundant in the central reaches of the river and only in the high intertidal zone.S. semperi-longicristatum was found only in the low intertidal zone, downstream forest. Subsequently, tests of salinity tolerances of these crabs were carried out in the laboratory. These indicated very wide tolerances over salinities from completely fresh to hypersaline (60‰). The osmoregulatory abilities of the crabs were also found to vary. However, neither their salinity tolerance nor osmoregulatory ability adequately explain the zonation patterns were measured in the field. For example,S. brevicristatum had the most restricted distribution, but it had the second broadest salinity tolerance and osmoregulatory ability. Sediment characteristics explained a significant amount of the variation in abundance for two of the crab species. Pore-water salinity provided no explanatory power for any of the species. Individual species abundances are probably influenced by additional factors such as interspecific competition and predation.     

Optimal pricing of the Taiwan carbon trading market based on a demand–supply model

This study establishes theoretical models of supply and demand for carbon trading and proposes conditions for optimal trading prices and periods. Taiwan’s carbon market is used to verify the validity of the models. Simulations and empirical analysis position firms that emit greenhouse gases as the market buyers, and landowners that convert agricultural lands into plantation forests as the market sellers. The study compares four trading scenarios to determine optimal trading prices and time periods. There were four key conclusions. First, the higher the buyer’s cost to reduce carbon emissions, the higher the demand price is in the carbon trading market. The longer the trading period, the higher the carbon offsets, and the higher the demand price is for emissions trading. Second, the higher the emission trading price, the longer the optimal forest rotation period is for landowners. If emission costs do not exist at the time of logging, landowners are encouraged to log early, reducing the length of rotation periods. Furthermore, as the extension period in the trading scenarios increases, landowners’ costs increase, raising the market equilibrium price. Third, when landowners participate in forest carbon trading mechanisms or carbon subsidy policies, they may not always lengthen forest rotation periods. Therefore, if and when the government implements these mechanisms or policies, it should consider the factors affecting the length of forest rotation period. Finally, to respond to international interest in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the government should design separate carbon programs and trading mechanisms for different types of private landowners. This would strengthen incentives for participating in the afforestation program.

     

Optimal pricing of the Taiwan carbon trading market based on a demand–supply model

This study establishes theoretical models of supply and demand for carbon trading and proposes conditions for optimal trading prices and periods. Taiwan’s carbon market is used to verify the validity of the models. Simulations and empirical analysis position firms that emit greenhouse gases as the market buyers, and landowners that convert agricultural lands into plantation forests as the market sellers. The study compares four trading scenarios to determine optimal trading prices and time periods. There were four key conclusions. First, the higher the buyer’s cost to reduce carbon emissions, the higher the demand price is in the carbon trading market. The longer the trading period, the higher the carbon offsets, and the higher the demand price is for emissions trading. Second, the higher the emission trading price, the longer the optimal forest rotation period is for landowners. If emission costs do not exist at the time of logging, landowners are encouraged to log early, reducing the length of rotation periods. Furthermore, as the extension period in the trading scenarios increases, landowners’ costs increase, raising the market equilibrium price. Third, when landowners participate in forest carbon trading mechanisms or carbon subsidy policies, they may not always lengthen forest rotation periods. Therefore, if and when the government implements these mechanisms or policies, it should consider the factors affecting the length of forest rotation period. Finally, to respond to international interest in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the government should design separate carbon programs and trading mechanisms for different types of private landowners. This would strengthen incentives for participating in the afforestation program.     

青藏高原隆起和高山栎组（壳斗科）分布的关系

高山栎是一类硬叶常绿的栎属植物,集中分布在横断山区,是这一地区群落中的优势种和建群种。高山栎组分布区的形成和喜马拉雅的隆起、横断山的形成有密切关系。讨论了这种相互关系。先清理了高山栎分类学的混乱,将原来的12种高山栎归并为 9种,在此基础上讨论了高山栎的现代分布和系统位置,总结分析了高山栎的地史资料。认为高山栎组植物出现的时间不晚于中新世,在中新世高山栎组已经有了较广的分布,分布在当时的亚热带常绿阔叶林。在上新世,随着喜马拉雅山脉的隆起和抬升,横断山地区的环境发生了巨大的变化,环境变冷、变旱。高山栎组植物由于自身所具有的抗寒耐旱的形态特征,如被较厚的毛被,单位面积气孔数目较少等使之在生物竞争中成为优胜者,而逐步成为横断山地区群落中的优势种和建群种。并以已有地质学、古植物学、形态解剖学、植物地理学和分子生物学的证据论证了这一假说。