Azimuthal anisotropy analysis of walkaround vertical seismic profiling vertical seismic profiling: a case study from Saudi Arabia

Understanding fracture orientations is important for optimal field development of fractured reservoirs because fractures can act as conduits for fluid flow. This is especially true for unconventional reservoirs (e.g., tight gas sands and shale gas). Using walkaround Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP) technology presents a unique opportunity to identify seismic azimuthal anisotropy for use in mapping potential fracture zones and their orientation around a borehole. Saudi Aramco recently completed the acquisition, processing and analysis of a walkaround VSP survey through an unconventional tight gas sand reservoir to help characterize fractures. In this paper, we present the results of the seismic azimuthal anisotropy analysis using seismic traveltime, shear‐wave splitting and amplitude attenuation. The azimuthal anisotropy results are compared to the fracture orientations derived from dipole sonic and image logs. The image log interpretation suggests that an orthorhombic fracture system is present. VSP data show that the P‐wave traveltime anisotropy direction is NE to SW. This is consistent with the cemented fractures from the image log interpretation. The seismic amplitude attenuation anisotropy direction is NW to SE. This is consistent with one of the two orientations obtained using transverse to radial amplitude ratio analysis, with the dipole sonic and with open fracture directions interpreted from image log data.     

中国大陆科学钻探孔区的数字三分量反射地震调查

本文将简要介绍在大陆科学钻探孔区进行数字三分量地震勘探试验数据采集处理技术，以及取得的初步成果. 鉴于结晶岩地区波场的复杂性，在剖面调查之前要先进行波场特征调查，才能确定三分量地震调查观测系统采集参数.数据处理中与水平分量处理有关的三个困难环节包括静校正、速度分析与动校叠加，必须有所创新.在大陆科学钻探工程中，三分量数字地震调查之所以放在终孔后才进行，主要是因为三分量地震解释要以钻孔资料和VSP成果为基础.如果没有岩芯物性测定资料或VSP纵横波速度计算曲线，横波速度剖面模式就难以建立，水平分量数据处理和解释就难以进行.与单分量地震调查相比，水平分量采集处理提供了转换波信息，可反映独特的很有意义的地质信息.在三分量数字地震调查X分量深度叠加剖面左半边深度2600～3400 m区段出现密集的水平反射层，与Z分量反射剖面和变质岩片倾向不一致.对比主孔气体异常曲线可知，这些水平反射是地层中流体含量升高的反映.     

目前多分量地震勘探中的几个关键问题

基于地震各向异性理论的多分量地震勘探技术已得到一定程度的应用,以解决复杂 油气藏的勘探问题. 然而在陆上油气勘探中,在多分量数据采集、处理方法和解释方面还存 在一些问题. 为此,本文针对多分量数据采集、处理、解释过程中的三分量检波器、观测系 统设计、各向异性处理方法和处理解释一体化进行了探讨. 指出在有关研究与应用时要特别 注意观测系统设计、各向异性处理模块的开发和处理解释一体化思路的实现,同时提出相应 的解决办法.     

Integrated application of 3D seismic and microseismic data in the development of tight gas reservoirs

The development of unconventional resources, such as shale gas and tight sand gas, requires the integration of multi-disciplinary knowledge to resolve many engineering problems in order to achieve economic production levels. The reservoir heterogeneity revealed by different data sets, such as 3D seismic and microseismic data, can more fully reflect the reservoir properties and is helpful to optimize the drilling and completion programs. First, we predict the local stress direction and open or close status of the natural fractures in tight sand reservoirs based on seismic curvature, an attribute that reveals reservoir heterogeneity and geomechanical properties. Meanwhile, the reservoir fracture network is predicted using an ant-tracking cube and the potential fracture barriers which can affect hydraulic fracture propagation are predicted by integrating the seismic curvature attribute and ant-tracking cube. Second, we use this information, derived from 3D seismic data, to assist in designing the fracture program and adjusting stimulation parameters. Finally, we interpret the reason why sand plugs will occur during the stimulation process by the integration of 3D seismic interpretation and microseismic imaging results, which further explain the hydraulic fracture propagation controlling factors and open or closed state of natural fractures in tight sand reservoirs.     

部分饱和砂岩储层地震物理模拟及含气饱和度预测分析

含气饱和度预测是天然气储层地震解释工作的重要目标.本文将岩石物理分析与地震物理模拟技术相结合,构建了部分;饱和砂岩储层物理模型并进行含气饱和度预测分析.物理模型中设置了高孔渗常规砂岩和低孑孔渗致密砂岩两种模拟储层,每种储层都是由具有不同含水饱和度的气-水双相饱和砂体组成.岩石物理分析结果显示在低孔渗致密砂岩中气-水混合流体更加倾向于非均匀的斑块分布,而结合了Brie等效流体公式的Gassmann流体替换理论可以更准确地描述纵波速度随含水饱和度的变化趋势.对物理模型进行地震资料采集处理后,对比了AVO特征和叠前同步反演结果对两种砂岩储层含气饱和度预测能力的差异.AVO特征结果显示,对于混合流体均匀分布的高孔渗砂岩储层,AVO响应曲线和属性变化很难对含气饱和度进行估算;对于混合流体斑块分布的致密砂岩储层,AVO特征可以定性地分辨出储层是否为高、中、低含气情况.反演结果显示,密度及纵横波速度比分别对高孔渗及致密砂岩储层的含气饱和度有着较好的指示能力.     

Successful sidetracking of a well onshore Germany by integration of 3D vertical seismic profiling technology – a case study

The exploration for and exploitation of deep Lower Rotliegend gasfields onshore in North Germany often suffers from poor surface seismic imaging. This is owing to the depth of the reservoirs and a thick and complex Zechstein salt overburden. RWE Dea conducted a 3D vertical seismic profile (VSP) survey in a low‐performing production well after the borehole was plugged near total depth. Our main objective was to improve the seismic image of the reservoir zone in the vicinity of the well to determine a new landing point for a planned sidetrack. Because acquisition was in a densely populated and also partially environmentally protected area, there were surface restrictions concerning source deployment. Additionally, due to the complex geological setting, we conducted two 2D VSP field tests and thorough pre‐survey modelling to achieve the best results in terms of seismic imaging, environmental impact and reasonable cost. Deformation bands in the drill core suggest that the initial well was drilled close to a major fault, which was regarded as the main reason for the disappointing production rate. Therefore, we put special emphasis on fault detection in our processing and interpretation. Our interpretation approach used an enhanced structural mapping workflow that helped to design a sidetrack. When the sidetrack was drilled two years later, it ended up being one of the most productive wells in the field.     

大陆架科学钻探CSDP-2井的垂直地震剖面测量

南黄海海相地层的地震波场特征和层位标定一直是困扰地震勘探的重要问题.为了近距离、高精度和高分辨率地观测井周围构造特征和岩石性质引起的波场变化,为地震资料的采集、处理与解释提供地震波衰减规律、速度与层位标定等信息,对大陆架科学钻探CSDP-2井实施了近零偏移距垂直地震剖面（VSP）观测.针对海相地层顶部强反射界面地震波穿透难的问题,采用了大容量气枪震源并设计了气枪阵列组合方式,提高了激发地震波的能量,获得了强反射界面之下清晰的PP、PS下行波和上行波信号.采用了三分量偏振合成、组合滤波和波场分离等处理方法,对VSP观测数据进行处理,获得了海相三叠系—志留系的精细的纵波、横波速度结构和地层吸收因子等物性数据,建立了钻井地层、测井、VSP上行波和多道地震剖面对应关系,实现了不同尺度的地质和地球物理属性资料的有效衔接,标定了钻井地质剖面上各深度地质体的地震反射特性,厘定了过井地震剖面上反射同相轴的地质属性.此次观测取得的纵波、横波速度信息,成为建立南黄海海相地层速度模型主要的资料来源,也是地震资料的岩性反演处理不可缺少的信息.     

井-地观测系统（3D+VSP）和基于模型的处理技术有关问题的讨论

对了解地下构造和描绘地下油气分布来说,用地面地震勘探技术可以分辩15～30 m的地层.低分辨率和缺乏详细的速度信息会降低地面地震勘探的效果,在研究更薄细的油气储层和研究已研究过的老区时,我们要采用一些更先进的勘探技术,对储层进行更精确的预测和描绘.本文分析了 VSP、测井和地面地震勘探各自的优势、不足和局限,采用VSP方法,我们只能得到井周围一定空问内的丰富速度信息,而详细的速度模型可以极大地提高地面地震勘探的效果.据此分析,组合VSP和地面地震方法优势的井-地观测系统(3D VSP),可有效地增加信息量,并可通过引入VSP数据处理时所用的基于模型的处理技术,来使井-地观测系统的优势进一步扩大,在此基础上,如果与精细测井相结合,可以更好的寻找和开发剩余油气,这将是我们今后重要的发展方向.     

Sub-basalt decoupled walkaway VSP imaging

Walkaway vertical seismic profile (VSP) data acquired in basalt‐covered areas can be used to improve knowledge of the sub‐basalt structure. A synthetic example and a case study from the North Atlantic (UK) show that elastic two‐way downward‐continuation migration combined with the stationary‐phase principle is well suited to the processing of VSP data. Vector data are processed using decoupled elastic migration algorithms in both isotropic and anisotropic media. To illustrate the value of decoupled imaging equations, conventional PP imaging is carried out on the enhanced VSP data and compared with the decoupled scheme. Decoupled vector migration operates directly on the displacement vector, and uses various wave modes. Downgoing waves are migrated to image basalt lava flows and measure their anisotropy. Upgoing waves are used for high‐resolution sub‐basalt imaging.     

Moveout approximation for vertical seismic profile geometry in a 2D model with anisotropic layers

I introduce a new explicit form of vertical seismic profile (VSP) traveltime approximation for a 2D model with non‐horizontal boundaries and anisotropic layers. The goal of the new approximation is to dramatically decrease the cost of time calculations by reducing the number of calculated rays in a complex multi‐layered anisotropic model for VSP walkaway data with many sources. This traveltime approximation extends the generalized moveout approximation proposed by Fomel and Stovas. The new equation is designed for borehole seismic geometry where the receivers are placed in a well while the sources are on the surface. For this, the time‐offset function is presented as a sum of odd and even functions. Coefficients in this approximation are determined by calculating the traveltime and its first‐ and second‐order derivatives at five specific rays. Once these coefficients are determined, the traveltimes at other rays are calculated by this approximation. Testing this new approximation on a 2D anisotropic model with dipping boundaries shows its very high accuracy for offsets three times the reflector depths. The new approximation can be used for 2D anisotropic models with tilted symmetry axes for practical VSP geometry calculations. The new explicit approximation eliminates the need of massive ray tracing in a complicated velocity model for multi‐source VSP surveys. This method is designed not for NMO correction but for replacing conventional ray tracing for time calculations.     

全三维地震解释

三维地震为油气工业的增储上产作出了重大贡献，随着采集处理成本的不断降低，周期的不断缩短，全三维处理和叠前深度偏移等技术的推广应用，以及计算机技术的迅速发展，全三维地震解释已成为国内外致力发展的技术。     

Converted wave seismic imaging in the Flin Flon mining camp, Canada

Seismic imaging for mineral exploration in hardrock environment has typically relied on P-waves recorded using vertical component geophones. Here we demonstrate the potential of using P-to-S converted waves for mineral exploration by applying converted wave processing to high-resolution 3-component data acquired in the Flin Flon mining camp, Canada. Inferences regarding the relative value of PS data are made through comparison with corresponding PP images, interpretation with geological constraints, and by comparison with modeling results. Modeling results show that the horizontal component data provide a robust means of separating the PS conversions from the PP reflections in converted wave processing whereas contamination by PP energy is more severe if the vertical component data are used. A customized processing workflow has been developed in which horizontal component data are sorted into common-reflection point gathers by the application of the converted wave dip-moveout operator. The PS images are characterized by lower signal-to-noise ratios than the PP images due to the smaller S-wave impedance contrasts associated with the main lithologic units and the angular dependence of P-to-S conversion. An exception to this occurs for PS reflections from the ore zones which are accentuated on the PS images relative to the background host-rock reflectivity. There are discrepancies in the reflection dips and positions observed on corresponding PP and PS sections that are not fully explained. They can be partly attributed to the non-coincidence of subsurface spatial sampling associated with common-depth points versus common-conversion points, with an additional complication associated with the known 3D geology. Vp/Vs ratios determined by correlation of reflections observed on PP and PS images can provide a limited means of lithological discrimination.     

Prestack Kirchhoff time migration of 3D coal seismic data from mining zones

Conventional seismic data processing methods based on post‐stack time migration have been playing an important role in coal exploration for decades. However, post‐stack time migration processing often results in low‐quality images in complex geological environments. In order to obtain high‐quality images, we present a strategy that applies the Kirchhoff prestack time migration (PSTM) method to coal seismic data. In this paper, we describe the implementation of Kirchhoff PSTM to a 3D coal seam. Meanwhile we derive the workflow of 3D Kirchhoff PSTM processing based on coal seismic data. The processing sequence of 3D Kirchhoff PSTM includes two major steps: 1) the estimation of the 3D root‐mean‐square (RMS) velocity field; 2) Kirchhoff prestack time migration processing. During the construction of a 3D velocity model, dip moveout velocity is served as an initial migration velocity field. We combine 3D Kirchhoff PSTM with the continuous adjustment of a 3D RMS velocity field by the criteria of flattened common reflection point gathers. In comparison with post‐stack time migration, the application of 3D Kirchhoff PSTM to coal seismic data produces better images of the coal seam reflections.     

Towards quantitative evaluation of gas injection using time‐lapse seismic data

Of particular concern in the monitoring of gas injection for the purposes of storage, disposal or improved oil recovery is the exact spatial distribution of the gas volumes in the subsurface. In principle this requirement is addressed by the use of 4D seismic data, although it is recognized that the seismic response still largely provides a qualitative estimate of moved subsurface fluids. Exact quantitative evaluation of fluid distributions and associated saturations remains a challenge to be solved. Here, an attempt has been made to produce mapped quantitative estimates of the gas volume injected into a clastic reservoir. Despite good results using three accurately repeated seismic surveys, time‐delay and amplitude attributes reveal fine‐scale differences though large‐scale agreement in the estimated fluid movement. These differences indicate disparities in the nature of the two attributes themselves, which can be explained by several possible causes. Of most impact are the effects of processing and migration, wave interference effects and noise from non‐repeatability of the seismic surveys. This subject highlights the need for a more careful consideration in 4D acquisition, amplitude processing and use of true amplitude preserving attributes in quantitative interpretation.     

Seismic monitoring of pressure depletion evaluated for a United Kingdom continental-shelf gas reservoir

The possibility of using 4D seismic data for monitoring pressure depletion in the low‐porosity, tight gas‐bearing Rotliegende sandstones of the UK Southern Gas Basin is investigated. The focus here is on whether fractures in the upper part of the reservoir, known to enhance productivity, can also enhance the time‐lapse seismic response. The study uses laboratory data to evaluate core‐plug stress sensitivity, published data for the stress behaviour of the fractures, followed by petro‐elastic and 4D seismic modelling of both the fractured and unfractured formation. The magnitude of the resultant 4D signatures suggests that production‐induced changes in the unfractured sands are unlikely to be observed except perhaps with highly repeatable time‐lapse surveys. On the other hand, the presence of fractures could render production effects visible in dedicated 4D acquisition or prestack parallel processed data. If present however, the signature will be sporadic, as fractures in the area are known to exist in clusters. The 4D signature may be enhanced further by certain classes of vertical geological variability and also areas of high reservoir pressure. The strongest evidence of depletion is expected to be time‐shifts seen at the base of the Rotliegende reservoir.     

SEISMIC HORIZON DETECTION USING IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS1

Seismic sections used in interpretation are actually images. We often superimpose colour-coded pictures of seismic attributes on seismic sections. Thus, it seems straightforward to use image processing algorithms to enhance the quality of the seismic images. From an image processing point of view, seismic horizons can be thought of as edges on the seismic image. We present a novel approach to detecting seismic horizons, which includes the 2D median filtering of the instantaneous phase attribute and applying an edge detection algorithm. The resulting edge magnitude picture provides a skeletonized image of the seismic section, on which the structural and stratigraphic patterns can be better recognized.     

Using wavelet‐domain adaptive filtering to improve signal‐to‐noise ratio of nuclear magnetic resonance log data from tight gas sands

In tight gas sands, the signal‐to‐noise ratio of nuclear magnetic resonance log data is usually low, which limits the application of nuclear magnetic resonance logs in this type of reservoir. This project uses the method of wavelet‐domain adaptive filtering to denoise the nuclear magnetic resonance log data from tight gas sands. The principles of the maximum correlation coefficient and the minimum root mean square error are used to decide on the optimal basis function for wavelet transformation. The feasibility and the effectiveness of this method are verified by analysing the numerical simulation results and core experimental data. Compared with the wavelet thresholding denoise method, this adaptive filtering method is more effective in noise filtering, which can improve the signal‐to‐noise ratio of nuclear magnetic resonance data and the inversion precision of transverse relaxation time T₂ spectrum. The application of this method to nuclear magnetic resonance logs shows that this method not only can improve the accuracy of nuclear magnetic resonance porosity but also can enhance the recognition ability of tight gas sands in nuclear magnetic resonance logs.     

Anisotropic elastic full‐waveform inversion of walkaway vertical seismic profiling data from the Arabian Gulf

Borehole seismic addresses the need for high‐resolution images and elastic parameters of the subsurface. Full‐waveform inversion of vertical seismic profile data is a promising technology with the potential to recover quantitative information about elastic properties of the medium. Full‐waveform inversion has the capability to process the entire wavefield and to address the wave propagation effects contained in the borehole data—multi‐component measurements; anisotropic effects; compressional and shear waves; and transmitted, converted, and reflected waves and multiples. Full‐waveform inversion, therefore, has the potential to provide a more accurate result compared with conventional processing methods. We present a feasibility study with results of the application of high‐frequency (up to 60 Hz) anisotropic elastic full‐waveform inversion to a walkaway vertical seismic profile data from the Arabian Gulf. Full‐waveform inversion has reproduced the majority of the wave events and recovered a geologically plausible layered model with physically meaningful values of the medium.     

川西凹陷孝泉地区3D3C量地震资料采集方法

川西坳陷孝泉地区深层须家河组致密砂岩气藏属于典型非常规裂缝性气藏,储层识别、裂缝检测、含气性识别是气藏研究的重点和难点.转换波3D3C勘探可同时获得反映岩石骨架和各向异性特性的C波资料及反映骨架及流体特性的P波资料,因而适用于川西孝泉深层超致密裂缝性气藏.在3D3C地震勘探中,三维三分量地震采集方法是采集到高质量多分量原始资料的技术保障,本文重点研究这种采集方法.首先根据地球物理参数,结合地质任务要求,分析了三维三分量观测系统设计的方法及观测系统参数,然后根据分析结果和勘探目的层的实际情况设计了同时适合纵波勘探和转换波勘探的面元尺寸、最大和最小炮检距、接收线距、束间滚动距等参数并确定了三维三分量观测系统.该观测系统在孝泉地区资料采集中,获得的三分量资料波组特征清楚,同相轴连续,反射信息丰富;Z分量剖面和R分量剖面反射层次清楚,目的层反射特征明显,具有非常好的构造形态一致性.