Indications of an extreme event deposits along the west coast of India: evidences from GPR investigations

The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) was used to trace the subsurface details in the Palshet coastal zone (Maharashtra) as it exhibits an interesting array of geomorphological features. Furthermore, our main goal was to identify and locate features that might have formed during a reported extreme event and its effects on the flow of the nearby Sundri River. Two profiles (8 and 4 m depth) were collected across the beach and along the backshore, respectively. While the 8-m depth profile (west to east; across the beach) indicates a series of coastline regression in this area, the 4-m depth profile along the coastline (north to south) in the backshore zone reveals two significant incidents viz., (1) stages of development of the paleo-channels that indicate the migration of the Sundri River towards south and (2) huge sediment deposits up to 2.5-m thick in the backshore area. The erosional relict surface (~2.5 m depth) was traced along with various spells of sediments that perhaps occurred due to an extreme event. Sand samples were collected from two trial pits along the GPR profiles to understand the sedimentology and mineralogy in the backshore area. These data together with beach profiles and geomorphological maps suggest that the sands were deposited by an extreme event perhaps during the 1854 cyclonic storm. The sands were trapped in suitable geomorphological sites along the Palshet coast and these sand deposits of about 2.5 m thickness forced the River Sundri to shift its course towards the south. This new revelation facilitates a further study that could focus on the nearby coastal areas to document such extreme event deposits and their influence on the geomorphic set-up.     

Sedimentology of the December 26, 2004, Sumatra tsunami deposits in eastern India (Tamil Nadu) and Kenya

The December 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami caused severe damage at the coasts of the Indian ocean. We report results of a sedimentological study of tsunami run-up parameters and the sediments laid down by the tsunami at the coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and between Malindi and Lamu, Kenya. In India, evidence of three tsunami waves is preserved on the beaches in the form of characteristic debris accumulations. We measured the maximum run-up distance at 580 m and the maximum run-up height at 4.85 m. Flow depth over land was at least 3.5 m. The tsunami deposited an up to 30 cm thick blanket of moderately well to well-sorted coarse and medium sand that overlies older beach deposits or soil with an erosional unconformity. The sand sheet thins inland without a decrease of grain-size. The deposits consist frequently of three layers. The lower one may be cross-bedded with foresets dipping landward and indicating deposition during run-up. The overlying two sand layers are graded or parallel-laminated without indicators of current directions. Thus, it remains undecided whether they formed during run-up or return flow. Thin dark laminae rich in heavy minerals frequently mark the contacts between successive layers. Benthic foraminifera indicate an entrainment of sediment by the tsunami from water depths less than ca. 30 m water depth. On the Indian shelf these depths are present at distances of up to 5 km from the coast. In Kenya only one wave is recorded, which attained a run-up height of 3 m at a run-up distance of ca. 35 m from the tidal water line at the time of the tsunami impact. Only one layer of fine sand was deposited by the tsunami. It consists predominantly of heavy minerals supplied to the sea by a nearby river. The sand layer thins landward with a minor decrease in grain-size. Benthic foraminifera indicate an entrainment of sediment by the tsunami from water depths less than ca. 30 m water depth, reaching down potentially to ca. 80 m. The presence of only one tsunami-related sediment layer in Kenya, but three in India, reflects the impact of only one wave at the coast of Kenya, as opposed to several in India. Grain-size distributions in the Indian and Kenyan deposits are mostly normal to slightly positively skewed and indicate that the detritus was entrained by the tsunami from well sorted pre-tsunami deposits in nearshore, swash zone and beach environments.     

Beach erosion and acceretion—An example from Kerala,Southwest Coast of India

The thickly populated coastal zone of Kerala, India is facing severe problems due to attack of high waves during the southwest monsoon. Systematic beach profiling at 5-km intervals was carried out along the 560-km stretch of the Kerala coast during the pre-and postmonsoon seasons in 1984. Beach volume changes were calculated at each profile station, and the erosional and accretional trends for the entire coastal tract were demarcated in a map. Total erosion along 55 stations is 1276 m³/m. The general erosional and acceretional trends were also found to coincide with diverging and converging littoral currents deduced from the wave refraction diagrams. Such study at periodic intervals will be highly useful for proper management of the coastal zone.     

Seismic parameters controlling far-field tsunami amplitudes: A review

We present a review of the influence of various parameters of the sources of major oceanic earthquakes on the amplitude of tsunamis at transoceanic distances. We base our computations on the normal mode formalism, applied to realistic Earth models, but interpret our principal results in the simpler framework of Haskell theory in the case of a water layer over a Poisson half-space. Our results show that source depth and focal geometry play only a limited role in controlling the amplitude of the tsunami; their combined influence reaches at most 1 order of magnitude down to a depth of 150 km into the hard rock. More important are the effects of directivity due to rupture propagation along the fault, which for large earthquakes can result in a ten-fold decrease in tsunami amplitude by destructive interference, and the possibility of enhanced tsunami excitation in material with weaker elastic properties, such as sedimentary layers. Modelling of the so-called tsunami earthquakes suggests that an event for which 10% of the moment release takes place in sediments generates a tsunami 10 times larger than its seismic moment would suggest. We also investigate the properties of non-double couple sources and find that their relative excitation of tsunamis and Rayleigh waves is in general comparable to that of regular seismic sources. In particular, landslides involving weak sediments could result in very large tsunamis. Finally, we emphasize that the final amplitude at a receiving shore can be strongly affected by focusing and defocusing effects, due to variations in bathymetry along the path of the tsunami.     

Sedimentology of tsunami inflow and backflow deposits: key differences revealed in a modern example

Onshore tsunami deposits may consist of inflow and backflow deposits. Grain sizes can range from clay to boulders of several metres in diameter. Grain‐size distributions reflect the mode of deposition and may be used to explore the hydrodynamic conditions of transport. The absence of unique sedimentary features identifying tsunami deposits makes it difficult in some cases to distinguish inflow from backflow deposits. On Isla Mocha off central Chile, the 27 February 2010 tsunami left behind inflow and backflow deposits of highly variable character. Tsunami inflow entrained sands, gravels and boulders in the upper shoreface, beach, and along coastal terraces. Boulders of up to 12 t were transported up to 300 m inland and 13 m above sea‐level. Thin veneers of coarse sand were found up to the maximum runup at 600 m inland and 19 m above sea‐level. Backflow re‐mobilized most of the sands and gravels deposited during inflow. The orientation of erosional structures indicates that significant volumes of sediment were entrained also during backflow. A major feature of the backflow deposits are widespread prograding fans of coarse sediment developed downcurrent of terrace steps. Fan sediments are mostly structureless but include cross‐bedding, imbrication and ripples, indicating deposition from bedload traction currents. The sediments are poorly sorted, grain sizes range between medium to coarse sand to gravel and pebbles. An assessment of the backflow transport conditions of this mixed material suggests that bedload transport at Rouse numbers >2·5 was achieved by supercritical flows, whereas deposition occurred when currents had decelerated sufficiently on the low‐gradient lower coastal plain. The sedimentary record of the February 2010 tsunami at Isla Mocha consists of backflow deposits to more than 90%. Due to the lack of sedimentary structures, many previous studies of modern tsunami sediments found that most of the detritus was deposited during inflow. This study demonstrates that an uncritical use of this assumption may lead to erroneous interpretations of palaeotsunami magnitudes and sedimentary processes if unknowingly applied to backflow deposits.     

Sedimentological and geomorphological effects of the Sumatra–Andaman Tsunami in the area of Khao Lak,southern Thailand

The Sumatra–Andaman Tsunami left distinctive sedimentological and geomorphological signatures in the area of Khao Lak. Fine-grained sediments, predominantly layers of cohesive, carbonate-rich, fine-sandy silt with thicknesses of 1–10 cm, erosionally overlying pre-tsunami sandy soils and sediments, represent the most common tsunami deposits in the study area. Petrographically, they differ significantly from other coastal sediments and affiliated soils. Due to their grain size and corresponding clay mineral content, muddy shelf sediments (sub-wave base) are indicated as a main source. The present results suggest that indications of shelf influence, although varying regionally, might contribute to the identification of fine-grained tsunami sediments and their differentiation from storm sediments. However, the observed differences of tsunami sediments to soils and other coastal sediments, especially with respect to carbonate mineralogy, might disappear in short geological time under conditions of intensive weathering and bioturbation. At Cape Pakarang, hundreds of boulders with up to 24 tons were deposited on the foreshore and upper shoreface. Applying Nott’s (Earth Planet Sci Lett 210:269–276, 2003) formulas, minimum flow velocities of 3.9 m/s are required to transport the largest boulders. The devastating tsunami effect of both, onshore flow and backflow, is documented by damaged human constructions. Geomorphological effects include intensive widening of estuary mouths and the development of erosional channels. Now, estuary mouths are reduced, and erosional channels cut off from the sea due to the formation of a post-tsunami beach ridge.     

Quantifying rates of coastal progradation from sediment volume using GPR and OSL: the Holocene fill of Guichen Bay, south-east South Australia

Guichen Bay on the south‐east coast of South Australia faces west towards the prevailing westerly winds of the Southern Ocean. The bay is backed by a 4 km wide Holocene beach‐ridge plain with more than 100 beach ridges. The morphology of the Guichen Bay strandplain complex shows changes in the width, length, height and orientation of beach ridges. A combination of geomorphological interpretation, shallow geophysics and existing geochronology is used to interpret the Holocene fill of Guichen Bay. Six sets of beach ridges are identified from the interpretation of orthorectified aerial photographs. The ridge sets are distinguished on the basis of beach‐ridge orientation and continuity. A 2·25 km ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) profile across the beach ridges reveals the sedimentary structures and stratigraphic units. The beach ridges visible in the surface topography are a succession of stabilized foredunes that overlie progradational foreshore and upper shoreface sediments. The beach progrades show multiple truncation surfaces interpreted as storm events. The GPR profile shows that there are many more erosion surfaces in the subsurface than beach ridges on the surface. The width and dip of preserved beach progrades imaged by GPR shows that the shoreface has steepened from around 2·9° to around 7·5°. The changes in beach slope are attributed to increasing wave energy associated with beach progradation into deeper water as Guichen Bay was infilled. At the same time, the thickness of the preserved beach progrades increases slightly as the beach prograded into deeper water. Using the surface area of the ridge sets measured from the orthophotography, and the average thickness of upper shoreface, foreshore and coastal dune sands interpreted from the GPR profile, the volume of Holocene sediments within three of the six sets of beach‐ridge accretion has been calculated. Combining optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages and volume calculations, rates of sediment accumulation for Ridge Sets 3, 4 and 5 have been estimated. Linear rates of beach‐ridge progradation appear to decrease in the mid‐Holocene. However, the rates of sediment accumulation calculated from beach volumes have remained remarkably consistent through the mid‐ to late Holocene. This suggests that sediment supply to the beach has been constant and that the decrease in the rate of progradation is due to increasing accommodation space as the beach progrades into deeper water. Changes in beach‐ridge morphology and orientation reflect environmental factors such as changes in wave climate and wind regime.     

埃迪卡拉系微生物碳酸盐岩沉积特征及其地质意义:以川中磨溪8井区灯影组四段为例*

四川盆地高石梯—磨溪地区埃迪卡拉系灯影组广泛发育一套微生物碳酸盐岩。以磨溪8井区灯影组四段(灯四段)为例,通过精细解析高频向上变浅序列的岩石学特征,发现灯四段微生物云岩及序列建造具有如下特征: (1)向上变浅序列主要由凝块石云岩、叠层石云岩和(含微生物)泥晶云岩3类构成,伴以少量微生物粘结颗粒云岩;(2)完整的典型向上变浅序列自下而上由(含微生物)泥晶云岩(A段)、平直状叠层石云岩(B段)、小型丘状叠层石云岩(C段)、分散状凝块石云岩(D段)、格架状凝块石云岩(E段)、微生物粘结颗粒云岩(F段)等6个岩性单元构成,但大量的序列由A-C-E、A-C-D、B-D、B-C-D-E等不完整的岩性单元构成,且序列顶底皆以凝块石云岩/(含微生物)泥晶云岩、叠层石云岩/(含微生物)泥晶云岩等不平整的岩性突变面或暴露面区分;(3)埃迪卡拉系微生物碳酸盐岩发育于浪基面之上至平均海平面附近的相对高能区域,且凝块石云岩较叠层石云岩形成的环境能量高。该研究结果不仅揭示出较高能的浅水环境控制了规模性微生物岩分布这一规律,而且对区域储集层预测具有指导意义,同时也因建立了有别于现代微生物的环境分布模式而具有重要的沉积学意义。     

山东峡山湖东岸现代滩坝沉积模式及控制因素*

滩坝作为发育于滨岸带非常重要的沉积储集层类型之一,已成为隐蔽油气藏勘探的目标。为进一步明确峡山湖东岸滨浅湖滩坝沉积模式,以现代沉积考察为基础,结合探地雷达技术和粒度分析资料,对东岸研究区滩坝砂体的沉积特征以及控制因素进行详细分析。结果表明: 峡山湖东岸主要发育风成沙丘及滩坝2种沉积体系。早期风成沉积物以发育连续性好的大型板状交错层理细砂为主,分选较好,粒度概率曲线以两段式为特征;滩坝沉积物以发育连续性差的板状交错层理、平行层理中砂为主,主要为反粒序或者复合粒序,具冲刷构造,岩性较混杂并以砂泥薄互层为特征,发育大量植物根系,粒度概率曲线以三段式为主,跳跃组分分为2段,分选较好。探地雷达资料表明研究区下部主要以厚层层状反射结构砂体为主,与风成沙丘沉积反射特征较为一致,环境敏感粒度组分对滩坝沉积较强的水动力作用有较好的指示。总体上,风力作用控制了风成砂体的沉积发育并且改变了古地貌条件,风浪作用冲刷改造了早期砂体,为滩坝的发育提供了物源,控制了滩坝发育的规模和地理位置,可概括为“风运—湖改”滩坝沉积模式,可为滩坝体系的识别和有利储集层预测提供指导。     

Distribution of arsenic in sediment of Hangjinhou Banner- Linhe transect in Hetao Basin,North China

In this research, we laid a Hangjinhou Banner-Linhe District drilling transect along western piedmont of Hetao Basin to the modern Yellow River, which passes through the Langshan Mountain piedmont alluvial-proluvial fan, the Yellow River paleochannel, alluvial-fluvial plain of the Yellow River and the modern Yellow River flood plain successively and based on which we collected sedimentary samples of different geomorphic units. Based on hydrogeology and sedimentology and by means of stratum tracing and transects comparison, the analysis result comes out that the arsenic (As) sediments in Hetao Basin is distributed in obvious zoning form and is closely related to the sedimentary environment. The paleochannel zone in northern Basin has the highest content of As sediments, average content reaching 12.24 μg/g. In the horizontal direction of the profile, the distribution regularity of As is consistent to that of elements like Mn, Fe, Al and TOC, since they have experienced the same geochemical process in sediments. In the vertical direction, the high-arsenic sediments are mainly formed of grey black silty-fine sand layers or interbedding layers of silty-fine sand and muddy clay, rich in organic matter. The sedimentary environments are mainly shallow lakes and depressions, where the content of As is related to that of elements like Sb, Mn, B, V, etc., and particularly has significant relation with Fe.     

Facies and ground-penetrating radar characteristics of coarse-grained beach deposits of the uppermost Pleistocene glacial Lake Algonquin, Ontario, Canada

The lithofacies of the uppermost Pleistocene ( ca 11 800 to 10 400 ¹⁴C yr  bp ), cold-temperate, coarse-grained beach deposits of Lake Algonquin, the precursor of the present Lake Huron of North America, have been studied and interpreted based on analogous features of modern beaches from the same region. Ice foot and ice-cementation develop during winter but, unlike Arctic beaches, ice-related sedimentary features are seldom, if ever, preserved in the Pleistocene and recent deposits of the Great Lakes. Instead, the deposits retain the typical characteristics of wave-dominated, pure gravel and mixed sand and gravel beaches, there including the classical subdivision of infill zone, swash zone/sand run, imbricated zone, coarse flat-clast zone and coastal dunes. These zones form a regular succession on the surface of many modern beaches; however, they seldom occur as quasi-complete vertical successions in older deposits. In the studied uppermost Pleistocene deposits, the various components are separated vertically by erosional contacts (bounding surfaces) readily recognizable on working faces of large sand and gravel pits and mappable in the subsurface by ground-penetrating radar. The lithofacies are sufficiently diagnostic to allow recognition of depositional settings, and the lithofacies architecture allows the deciphering of important geological events, such as: (i) local input of fluvial material onto the shoreface, where it was partially reworked by waves and moved onto the beachface; (ii) occurrence of major storm events; and (iii) repeated rapid transgressions and regressions typical of the glacial-lake precursors of the modern Great Lakes.     

Nine unusually large tsunami deposits from the past 4000 years at Kiritappu marsh along the southern Kuril Trench

Large earthquakes along the Kuril subduction zone in northern Japan are known to have caused damaging tsunami, although there is a little information on historical earthquakes and tsunami in this area because no documents exist before the 19th century that might refer to tsunami events. To determine the likely timing and size of future events we need information on their recurrence intervals and to do this for the prehistoric past we have investigated sediments located in the Kiritappu marsh in eastern Hokaido that we interpret as laid down by tsunami. Using reliable multiple lines of evidence from sedimentological, geomorphological, micropaleontological, and chronological results, we identify 13 tsunami sands. Two of these lie within a peat bed above a historical tephra, Ta-a (AD 1739); the upper one probably corresponds to the AD 1843 Tempo Tokachi-oki earthquake (M 8.2) tsunami, and the lower to either the AD 1952 Tokachi-oki earthquake (M 8.2) tsunami or the AD 1960 Chilean earthquake (M 9.5) tsunami. Underlying are 11 prehistoric tsunami sand beds (nine large sand beds and two smaller sand beds) deposited during the past 4000 years. Because of the wide spatial distribution of the large sand beds, and inundation distances inland of between 1200 to 3000 m, we suggest that they record unusually large tsunamis along the Kuril subduction zone. According to our analyses, these tsunami sands were derived from the coastal area and, although they do not show clear graded bedding, they commonly have gradational upper boundaries and erosional bases and include internal sedimentary structures such as plane beds, dunes, and current ripples, reflecting bedload transportation. Based on our results we calculate the recurrence interval of unusually large earthquakes (probably M 8.6) along the Kuril subduction zone as about 365–553 years and estimate the youngest large event to have occurred in the 17th century.     

综合多频率地质雷达天线探测活断层浅层结构——以玉树活动断裂为例

地质雷达技术具有操作性强、分辨率高、探测深度深、对地表环境无破坏和可重复探测等特点,在活断层探测中具有很大的优势。为验证综合多中心频率地质雷达天线探测活断层地下浅层结构效果,以民主村处发育的玉树活动断裂为研究对象,采用25 MHz、100 MHz、250 MHz和500 MHz中心频率的地质雷达天线对活断层浅层结构进行探测,并与探槽剖面进行效果对比。研究结果表明:低中心频率的地质雷达天线（25 MHz和100 MHz）可获取大范围内深度较深（约32 m）的活断层地下浅层结构的整体形态,从雷达图像上可识别出主断层分布范围、断层倾向及地下浅层结构等;而中高中心频率的地质雷达天线（250 MHz和500 MHz）则可获取局部范围内深度较浅（约3 m）的地下浅层结构,尤其是500 MHz天线。探测结果与地表构造地貌形态和探槽剖面地质构造一致,表明综合多中心频率地质雷达天线探测玉树活动断裂浅层结构的有效性和适用性,为活断层研究提供多尺度数据及方法支持。      

探地雷达(GPR)在海南岛东北部海岸带调查中的应用 *

对海南岛东北部海岸带调查采用了探地雷达(GPR)研究海岸带沙体的结构、展布和沉积序列,取得了很好的效果。文章通过和有限的露头资料对比以及对反射波形态、结构的研究,确定了海滩脊、海岸沙丘的反射特征以及潜水面的位置。雷达图像显示五龙港古海滩脊由亚水平、不连续、高振幅和透镜状反射波组成;木兰头海岸沙丘已受到人类活动的扰动,短的、陡倾斜反射可能代表未受扰动的海岸风成沙的前积层。研究表明探地雷达是一种可靠、快速和经济的地球物理方法,在砂砾质海岸可产生高质量、高分辨率和连续的反射剖面,值得加以推广。     

Frequency domain electromagnetic and ground penetrating radar investigation of ephemeral streams: case study near the Southern High Plains,Texas

A frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) and ground penetrating radar (GPR) study was conducted on an ephemeral stream in north-central Texas to determine if FDEM and GPR measurements can be combined to determine the electrical characteristics of current and ancient stream channels. GPR data were collected at several frequencies to image sedimentary structures of different scale lengths, and to determine the formation porosity and water content of stream sediments. FDEM measurements were collected using Geonics EM31 and EM34 loop–loop instruments on a profile along the current stream channel and five profiles perpendicular to the channel. The results indicate that the greater spatial resolution of the EM31 mapped the current and possible ancient channels better than the EM34, however, the EM34 provided depth information on the formations underlying the channel sediments that the EM31 could not image. GPR measurements taken along a point bar deposit with 200, 100 and 25 MHz antennae indicated that the higher frequency antenna better resolved channel structures including laminar bedding, trough scours and cross-bedding, however, lower frequency antenna (25 MHz) imaged sedimentary structures within the underlying channel sediments. Common midpoint GPR measurements collected along the point bar deposit were used to estimate the sediment formation porosity (26%) and the water content, during a dry period, of the unsaturated (12%) and saturated (26 or 100% of the pore space) sediments. The combined results indicated that the FDEM data should be collected first because of the speed and ease of measurements. The FDEM data (especially the EM31) pointed to the locations of possible sedimentary structures, which can then be resolved by using different frequency GPR measurements.     

Beach dynamics and oscillations of shoreline position in recent years at Miramar Beach,Goa, India: a study from a GPR survey

Consideration of human influences is crucial to understanding the coastal sediment supply and associated shoreline responses prior to undertaking coastal hazard management studies. Observation of the widening of some selected Indian beaches, especially over the last 6 decades, is of significance. From this perspective, Miramar Beach, Goa, India, was studied using three ground-penetrating radar shallow subsurface profiles (4 m depth). Based on a series of depositional siliciclastic packages, six progradational packages were recognised, which were interrupted by sharp erosional boundaries. These erosional boundaries represent transgressive phases of the shoreline migration. It was observed that the shoreline migration is coupled with the deposition and erosion of sediments, and this is supported by the historical admiralty charts. The optically simulated luminescence dating of the sediments collected at the first progradation period reveals that the age corresponds to the years 1952–1957, which also corroborates the information provided by the local populace. In the past 6 decades, the shoreline growth has been rapid because of the heavy sediment influx from the Mandovi River caused by increased mining activities (since the 1950s) in upstream areas. Since the 1950s, the shoreline has prograded rapidly, building a beach from ~40 to ~280 m wide (average rate of 4 m/year) in response to enhanced sediment supply from the Mandovi River created by mining activities upstream. Superimposed on this overall regressive trend is a series of deposition and erosion cycles. Perhaps, if a similar trend continues, then there will possibly be a further widening of the beach in the future. A close monitoring network is needed to understand the causes of the cycles in shoreline position and to predict their future behaviour. The present investigation on the nature of the coastal response to anthropogenic activities in a river basin as well as the role of short-time cycles on shoreline behaviour in the last 6 decades could be an ideal reference study and motivate the search for similar areas along other coastal locations.     

辽东湾西岸典型岬湾海滩表层沉积物粒度分布特征及水动力条件浅析

海滩形态、沉积物组分和粒度参数能反映海滩沉积环境。自2010年7月到2011年12月在辽东湾西岸葫芦岛市龙湾滨海沙滩和兴城第一海水浴场沙滩进行冬夏重复海滩剖面测量和表层沉积物粒度分析,结果表明:①两海滩以85黄海高程-0.6 m和-4.7 m为界划分为海滩、水下岸坡和陆架平原三个地貌单元。②龙湾沙滩海滩形态较稳定,兴城一浴海滩和水下岸坡淤积,均与海滩养护相关。③根据沉积物组分和粒径参数的差异,两海滩可横向划分为I、II、III、IV四个沉积区。各沉积区内中值粒径并没有出现横向递减的趋势,分选系数、偏态和峰态变化复杂。各沉积区间水力条件截然不同。④与兴城一浴相比,龙湾沙滩I沉积区沉积物颗粒较细、分选较好,水下岸坡存在综合动力条件弱的沉积区段,陆架平原缺少潮流作用强烈的区段。     

海啸波作用下泥沙运动——Ⅳ.建筑物局部冲刷

基于波浪水槽实验,以沿海公路为对象,对海啸波作用下建筑物局部冲刷机理开展研究。实验采用1/10与1/20的组合坡度,选取N波作为入射波。实验对波高、波浪的上爬、回落和水跃过程、每个波作用后的地形进行了测量和记录。实验结果表明,N波作用下地形发生冲淤变化,在回落水流所形成的螺旋流作用下,路基向海侧形成明显的冲刷坑。路基所在位置是最主要因素,波高是次要因素,路基深度影响较小。路基位于滩肩侵蚀发生处,则最大冲刷深度相对较大。     

Geoarchaeology of the Nehalem spit: Redistribution of beeswax galleon wreck debris by Cascadia earthquake and tsunami (∼A.D. 1700), Oregon,USA

A coincidence of the Beeswax galleon shipwreck (ca. A.D. 1650–1700) and the last Cascadia earthquake tsunami and coastal subsidence at ∼A.D. 1700 redistributed and buried wreck artifacts on the Nehalem Bay spit, Oregon, USA. Ground‐penetrating radar profiles (∼7 km total distance), sand auger probes, trenches, cutbank exposures (29 in number), and surface cobble counts (49 sites) were collected from the Nehalem spit (∼5 km² area). The field data demonstrate (1) the latest prehistoric integrity of the spit, (2) tsunami spit overtopping, and (3) coseismic beach retreat since the A.D. 1700 great earthquake in the Cascadia subduction zone. Wreck debris was (1) initially scattered along the spit ocean beaches, (2) washed over the spit by nearfield tsunami (6–8 m elevation), and (3) remobilized in beach strandlines by catastrophic beach retreat. Historic recovery of the spit (150 m beach progradation) and modern foredune accretion (>5 m depth) have buried both the retreat scarp strandlines and associated wreck artifacts. The recent onshore sand transport might re‐expose heavy ship remains in the offshore area if the wreck grounded in shallow water (<20 m water depth of closure). © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.