对流云人工增雨效果检验技术方法及应用

对流云降水时空变差较大,利用WoodleyRosenfeld提出的建立在雷达资料基础上的移动目标单元法对对流云增雨作业进行效果评估。利用塘沽、北京及秦皇岛3部雷达资料,对其进行插值处理,确定移动目标单元识别和跟踪方法,然后在移动目标单元中确定催化单元和对比单元,记录每个单元的物理参量,利用Z-R关系反演降水量,对物理参量和反演降水量做统计分析,定量计算增雨效果的同时提供人工增雨的物理证据。应用该方法对2011年7月24日对流云人工增雨作业效果进行评估,结果表明:催化剂进入云中后使得最大回波强度增强,回波顶高增加,从物理角度证明了催化对增加降水起到了一定作用。利用降雨率对增雨作业进行定量效果分析,结果表明该次作业相对增雨7.69%,显著度检验值0.043,增雨效果较为显著。     

Meteorological singularities in the Czech Republic in the period 1961–2002

Summary Based on the mean daily values of air temperature, air pressure, and precipitation totals at 13 climatological stations within the territory of the Czech Republic in the period 1961–2002, a statistical analysis of “meteorological singularities” (i.e., calendar-dependent deviations from the mean annual variation for selected meteorological elements) was performed. At the 13 stations analysed, a total of 45 meteorological singularities (37 singularities in air temperature, 35 in air pressure, and 30 in precipitation) were found. The singularities detected correlate well with cases traditionally recognised in the Czech Republic as well as with the results of analyses performed for Germany. Despite the considerable variability of singularities in time and space, most of them are found across the entire territory of the Czech Republic and can be observed for the most part in all three elements processed. The majority of the singularities detected may be explained on the basis of circulation mechanisms, by relating them to a significantly higher occurrence of certain groups of synoptic situations characterised by anomalous temperature or precipitation effects. Cases of “competition” between singularities, when different singularities may occur on the same calendar day, were found.     

江西省人工增雨统计检验系统设计与实现

介绍了基于VB6．0数据库编程技术的江西省人工增雨统计检验系统的设计思路、实现方法及具备的功能,阐述了区域历史回归和双比分析两种统计分析方法在人工增雨效果检验中的应用。选取2008年贵溪市开展的2次人工增雨作业进行效果检验及系统应用检验,利用系统提供的区域历史回归分析方法,计算得到人工增雨作业相对增雨率约31．9％,增雨效果显著。     

非随机化人工增雨作业功效数值分析和效果评估

用自然复随机化方法对北京市人工增雨作业非随机化试验进行功效数值分析.结果表明不同统计检验方案功效差别较大,序列试验功效最差,当作业样本数较多时对比试验功效较高,其次为区域历史回归试验和双比分析方案,当作业样本数较少时区域历史回归试验功效比其他两种方案更高.功效与增雨效果、历史样本数、作业样本数都有关系,当作业样本数或历史样本数增多时,功效都会增大,但是增大的程度会随着样本数目的增多而趋缓.分类统计不一定可以提高检验功效值,要采用分类统计方案首先就要保证分类后的作业样本数下的功效值大于合并后作业样本数下的功效值.在综合分析影响功效的各种因素基础上选择区域对比试验、双比分析和区域历史回归试验对北京市2002～2007年人工增雨作业进行效果总评价,结果均表明相对增雨效果在10％左右,采用复随机化方案进行显著度检验,结果表明3种方案下显著度水平均达0.05.     

聚类统计检验在人工增雨效果检验中的应用

将聚类统计检验分析引入原有的基于聚类的浮动区对比历史回归人工增雨效果检验方法中,减小站点分区的盲目性,聚为同一类的站点相似度更大,使聚类分析具有统计学意义。并把这种方法和未引入聚类检验的方法进行比较,通过对河南4月10次作业的效果评估表明,引入聚类检验提高了效果评估的功效。     

A revised method of presenting wavenumber–frequency power spectrum diagrams that reveals the asymmetric nature of tropical large-scale waves

The popular method of presenting wavenumber–frequency power spectrum diagrams for studying tropical large-scale waves in the literature is shown to give an incomplete presentation of these waves. The so-called “convectively coupled Kelvin (mixed Rossby-gravity) waves” are presented as existing only in the symmetric (anti-symmetric) component of the diagrams. This is obviously not consistent with the published composite/regression studies of “convectively coupled Kelvin waves,” which illustrate the asymmetric nature of these waves. The cause of this inconsistency is revealed in this note and a revised method of presenting the power spectrum diagrams is proposed. When this revised method is used, “convectively coupled Kelvin waves” do show anti-symmetric components, and “convectively coupled mixed Rossby-gravity waves (also known as Yanai waves)” do show a hint of symmetric components. These results bolster a published proposal that these waves should be called “chimeric Kelvin waves,” “chimeric mixed Rossby-gravity waves,” etc. This revised method of presenting power spectrum diagrams offers an additional means of comparing the GCM output with observations by calling attention to the capability of GCMs to correctly simulate the asymmetric characteristics of equatorial waves.     

一次飞机冷云增雨作业效果检验

最近60多年,全球范围内广泛开展了人工增雨作业,但人工增雨效果检验一直是个难题。传统上,利用雨量计和目标/对比区统计数据评估人工增雨效果,结果大多不确定。对一次人工增雨作业而言,从科学上给出令人信服的效果检验更是没有好的解决方案。2017年3月19日,陕西省实施业务飞机冷云增雨作业播撒含有750 g碘化银（AgI）的催化剂,播撒线长125 km。作业后卫星、雷达观测到一条与播云线对应的清晰的云迹线,地面雨滴谱仪观测到相应的雨强、雨滴数浓度、雨滴直径增大,表明播云使云体产生了增雨响应。针对这次增雨过程,从连片雷达回波中分离增雨作用造成的回波增强带（增雨影响回波）和确定了自然降水回波强度,建立增雨影响回波强度（Z）与地面雨强（I）的拟合关系（Z-I关系）,定量研究人工增雨的时、空演变。结果表明:（1）增雨影响时间约4 h,增雨影响回波区域（增雨影响区）面积为5448 km2。该区累计降雨总量和增雨总量分别为1.518×106 m3和8.04×105 m3,增雨影响区内增雨率达53%。（2）总降雨量、增雨量、自然降雨量随时间先增后减,总降雨量与增雨量的峰值同步,两者峰值都早于自然降雨峰值;催化后146 min （04时47分,世界时,下同）,每6 min增雨量达到最大,为4.9×104 m3;催化后174 min （05时15分）,增雨雷达回波面积达到最大（1711 km2）,面积峰值滞后增雨量峰值出现。（3）增雨影响区位于播撒线下游,呈条带状;区域内总降雨量空间分布为中间大边缘小,与增雨量空间分布一致。（4）此次增雨作业改变了降雨时、空分布,促进降雨形成,增加了地面降雨量。      

The role of ocean thermodynamics and dynamics in Asian summer monsoon changes during the mid-Holocene

Studies of climate change 6,000 years before present using atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) suggest the enhancement and northward shift of the summer Asian and African monsoons in the Northern Hemisphere. Although enhancement of the African monsoonal precipitation by ocean coupling is a common and robust feature, contradictions exist between analyses of the role of the ocean in the strength of the Asian monsoon. We investigated the role of the ocean in the Asian monsoon and sought to clarify which oceanic mechanisms played an important role using three ocean coupling schemes: MIROC, an atmosphere–ocean coupled general circulation model [C]; an AGCM extracted from MIROC coupled with a mixed-layer ocean model [M]; and the same AGCM, but with prescribed sea surface temperatures [A]. The effect of “ocean dynamics” is quantified through differences between experiments [C] and [M]. The effect of “ocean thermodynamics” is quantified through differences between experiments [M] and [A]. The precipitation change for the African and Asian monsoon area suggested that the ocean thermodynamics played an important role. In particular, the enhancement of the Asian monsoonal precipitation was most vigorous in the AGCM simulations, but mitigated in early summer in ocean coupled cases, which were not significantly different from each other. The ocean feedbacks were not significant for the precipitation change in late summer. On the other hand, in Africa, ocean thermodynamics contributed to the further enhancement of the precipitation from spring to autumn, and the ocean dynamics had a modest impact in enhancing precipitation in late summer.     

人工增雨效果评估中的面雨量计算分析

选取北京地区两次不同性质降水过程,分别对仅用气候站和并入自动气象站/雨量站的雨量资料,应用算术平均法和泰森多边形法对固定目标区进行面雨量计算分析.结果表明,泰森多边形法在不同性质降水过程面雨量计算中都表现出了一定优越性;并入自动气象站/雨量站的面雨量结果较仅用气候站资料所得结果更具代表性.在人工增雨效果评估中,可以尝试对由气候站计算的面雨量统计订正的办法,较精确地获得历史期目标区(包括控制区)面雨量实际值,这对提高人工增雨效果的评估精度具有重要实用价值.     

基于区域历史回归法的雷州半岛火箭增雨作业效果检验

利用ERA5再分析资料,区域自动站雨量资料以及双偏振雷达基数据,采用区域历史回归方法,对2020年7月4日雷州半岛火箭人工增雨作业进行物理检验和统计检验。结果表明:作业后作业区域云系云冰含量大幅增加,强回波区面积增大,回波顶高度升高,平均回波强度显著增加。选取1971—2000年作业影响区和对比区逐年7月的平均日降水量资料作为历史样本建立回归公式,结合作业当天区域自动站的雨量资料,计算得出日降水量和作业后3 h累积降水量的绝对增雨量分别为11.07 mm和2.32 mm,相对增雨率分别为51.08%和38.73%,均通过了置信水平为α=0.05显著性检验。因此,雷州半岛开展人工增雨作业对缓解气象干旱,满足水库蓄水等有重要意义。     

A discussion of statistical methods used to estimate extreme wind speeds

Summary Wind speeds in extra-tropical latitudes are known to be approximately Weibull distributed. Hence a Weibull distribution fitted to all available data is often used to predict extreme winds. The most extreme values then, however, have little influence on the estimated parent Weibull distribution, and the accuracy of the extreme value predictions obtained in this manner may be questioned. In the present paper such a “Weibull method” is compared to a method based on statistical extreme value theory, “the annual maxima method”. The comparison is based on 30 years of 10 minute wind speed averages measured hourly at 12 meteorological stations located at airports in Sweden. Results show that the Weibull method generates incorrect estimates of the tails of the distributions of wind speeds and of the distribution of yearly maximum wind speed, and that serial dependence of individual measurements has to be taken into account. In addition, it is inherent in the Weibull method that it does not provide any confidence bounds for the estimates. The annual maxima method avoids these problems. The measurements were rounded, first to entire knots, and then to m/s. A further, “technical”, result is that if this rounding were disregarded in the estimation procedure, then the computed standard errors of the parameter estimates would be erroneously low. Hence, if rounding is done, it should be taken into account in the estimation procedure. We also believe this to be a clear indication that rounding of the data decreases estimation accuracy.     

The influence of interpolation and station network density on the distributions and trends of climate variables in gridded daily data

We study the influence of station network density on the distributions and trends in indices of area-average daily precipitation and temperature in the E-OBS high resolution gridded dataset of daily climate over Europe, which was produced with the primary purpose of Regional Climate Model evaluation. Area averages can only be determined with reasonable accuracy from a sufficiently large number of stations within a grid-box. However, the station network on which E-OBS is based comprises only 2,316 stations, spread unevenly across approximately 18,000 0.22° grid-boxes. Consequently, grid-box data in E-OBS are derived through interpolation of stations up to 500 km distant, with the distance of stations that contribute significantly to any grid-box value increasing in areas with lower station density. Since more dispersed stations have less shared variance, the resultant interpolated values are likely to be over-smoothed, and extreme daily values even more so. We perform an experiment over five E-OBS grid boxes for precipitation and temperature that have a sufficiently dense local station network to enable a reasonable estimate of the area-average. We then create a series of randomly selected station sub-networks ranging in size from four to all stations within the E-OBS interpolation search radii. For each sub-network realisation, we estimate the grid-box average applying the same interpolation methodology as used for E-OBS, and then evaluate the effect of network density on the distribution of daily values, as well as trends in extremes indices. The results show that when fewer stations have been used for the interpolation, both precipitation and temperature are over-smoothed, leading to a strong tendency for interpolated daily values to be reduced relative to the “true” area-average. The smoothing is greatest for higher percentiles, and therefore has a disproportionate effect on extremes and any derived extremes indices. For many regions of the E-OBS dataset, the station density is sufficiently low to expect this smoothing effect to be significant and this should be borne in mind by any users of the E-OBS dataset.     

Estimating present climate in a warming world: a model-based approach

Weather services base their operational definitions of “present” climate on past observations, using a 30-year normal period such as 1961–1990 or 1971–2000. In a world with ongoing global warming, however, past data give a biased estimate of the actual present-day climate. Here we propose to correct this bias with a “delta change” method, in which model-simulated climate changes and observed global mean temperature changes are used to extrapolate past observations forward in time, to make them representative of present or future climate conditions. In a hindcast test for the years 1991–2002, the method works well for temperature, with a clear improvement in verification statistics compared to the case in which the hindcast is formed directly from the observations for 1961–1990. However, no improvement is found for precipitation, for which the signal-to-noise ratio between expected anthropogenic changes and interannual variability is much lower than for temperature. An application of the method to the present (around the year 2007) climate suggests that, as a geographical average over land areas excluding Antarctica, 8–9 months per year and 8–9 years per decade can be expected to be warmer than the median for 1971–2000. Along with the overall warming, a substantial increase in the frequency of warm extremes at the expense of cold extremes of monthly-to-annual temperature is expected.     

Evaluation of the Effect of Artificial Precipitation Enhancement over Eastern Hexi Corridor

This paper employed the non-randomization experiments such as the sequential test, the regional control test, the double ratio analysis evaluation method, and the regional regression test to analyze the effects of the artificial precipitation enhancement operations, which were carried out over eastern Hexi Corridor from May to September during 1997-2004. It is discovered that, after the implementation of the arti cial precipitation enhancement operations, the rainfall amount increased by 161.5 mm averagely in 8 yr,that is,an average relative precipitation enhancement ratio equals 43%.This indicates that the effects of artificial precipitation enhancement operations over eastern Hexi Corridor are obvious, thus carrying out these operations is feasible.The artificial precipitation enhancement opens a new way for eastern Hexi Corridor to exploit and utilize the air water resources, to ameliorate the ecological environment, and to increase the water store in reservoirs.     

抗旱型火箭人工增雨效果检验方法初步研究

为了在人工增雨作业中及时进行效果评估，利用2005年江淮地区人工增雨试验基地的资料，采用区域雨量对比分析、地面增雨效果的回归分析和增雨效果的物理检验方法，对2005年6月9日、8月3日两次人工增雨的效果进行了分析。结果表明：两次增雨作业都取得了较好的正效果；相对增雨在120％～140％。     

辽宁人工增雨试验区功效研究

采用复随机化试验法对辽宁人工增雨试验区进行功效分析,并通过对基于聚类的浮动对比区历史回归统计检验评估方案(CA-FCM)等几种评估方案的比较,确定了最适宜辽宁人工增雨试验区的试验方案和样本容量.结果表明:在辽宁人工增雨试验区以80%检出概率(0.05显著度)检验出10%增雨效果,区域控制试验和区域回归试验需要400个样本,区域交叉试验、多区双比交叉回归试验、CA-FCM需要250个样本.其中CA-FCM评估方案在相同的样本容量和催化效果情况下,功效值最大,评估效果最佳.     

Characteristics of the atmospheric heat source and moisture sink over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the second TIPEX of summer 1998 and their impact on surrounding monsoon

Summary ?Using the data of 6 automatic heat balance observation (AWS) stations and a data set of 52 surface observation stations over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (“the Plateau”) and surroundings, the horizontal distribution is studied of “apparent atmospheric heat sources” 〈Q ₁〉 and of “apparent atmospheric moisture sinks” 〈Q ₂〉. The AWS stations were established during the period May to August 1998 of the Tibetan Plateau Meteorological Experiment (second TIPEX) by a cooperation of China and Japan. For this period the Plateau mean of 〈Q ₁〉 is positive. Its value of 74 W/m² is a little greater than a climate value and than values from MONEX and the first TIPEX in 1979, respectively. Also the corresponding 〈Q ₂〉 is positive. Hence during that time the Plateau is a heat source and a moisture sink. A day-to-day change of 〈Q ₁〉 and 〈Q ₂〉 is more pronounced over the middle and east part of the Plateau than over the west part. Diagnostics accompanied by numerical simulations are used to study the daily relationship between 〈Q ₁〉 over the Plateau and the weather over China and Asia for this summer. The results suggest that 〈Q ₁〉 may affect precipitation over northern China and position of the west Pacific subtropical high. Abnormal southward retreat of this Pacific high seems to have caused the second flood over the middle and lower Yangtse river basin in July. Received May 20, 2001; revised February 2, 2002     

Local indications of climate changes in Turkey: Bursa as a case example

This study aims to put out on what ratio Bursa province, one of the important heavy industry regions of Turkey, has been affected climatic process called “Global Warming” or “Climate Change”. For this intend climatic measurement results from Bursa center, top of Uludağ Mount, Yenişehir and Keles meteorological stations were used. These measurements were taken as minimum temperature at night-time, maximum temperature at day-time, and mean temperature, mean pressure, insolation intensity, insolation duration, mean wind speed, minimum temperature above soil, soil temperatures at depths of 5, 10, and 20 cm rainfall. Overall, our statistical results showed that there was a considerable warming at statistically 1% and 5% levels in summer months, particularly in July Almost all performed measurements confirm this result. According to climatic data for thirty years (1975–2005), in the last twelve years contrary to previous 18 years, mean temperature values were higher than long-term mean value nine times (years) repetitively. Temperatures did not deviated higher than 0.5°C in six of these. At the temperatures below mean, The maximum deviation was −0.4°C.     

河南省层波状云系飞机人工增雨作业条件短期预测方法

对河南省春秋季降水以及云状特征的分析表明,河南省春秋季降水大多为层状云或波状云产生的稳定性降水,因而可采用对河南省分区分级进行降水预测的方法来确定适合飞机人工增雨的天气过程以及短期增雨区域。利用T213数值预报产品,运用逐步回归建立分区分级预报方程,并针对个别准确率较低的区域进行后处理。结果表明,用此方法对人工增雨作业进行指导是可行的。     

多层递阶回归分析法在全国初夏雨量预测中的应用

在传统统计方法的基础上,引入多层递阶方法。将多层递阶方法与回归方法合二为一,作为新的预测方法尝试,以弥补常规统计方法中回归系数是常数的不足。将多层递阶回归方法应用于短期气候预测,建立多层递阶回归模型,并用全国160个气象站5月份雨量作预报试验。经过近2a的实际预报表明：该模型对华中、华东、两广大部、云贵高原大部的5月份雨量有较好的预报能力,具有一定的参考价值。