Effect of remote clouds on surface UV irradiance

Clouds affect local surface UV irradiance, even if the horizontal distance from the radiation observation site amounts to several kilometers. In order to investigate this effect, which we call remote clouds effect, a 3-dimensional radiative transfer model is applied. Assuming the atmosphere is subdivided into a quadratic based sector and its surrounding, we quantify the influence of changing cloud coverage within this surrounding from 0% to 100% on surface UV irradiance at the sector center. To work out this remote clouds influence as a function of sector base size, we made some calculations for different sizes between 10 km × 10 km and 100 km × 100 km. It appears that in the case of small sectors (base size 20 km × 20 km) the remote clouds effect is highly variable: Depending on cloud structure, solar zenith angle and wavelength, the surface UV irradiance may be enhanced up to 15% as well as reduced by more than 50%. In contrast, for larger sectors it is always the case that enhancements become smaller by 5% if sector base size exceeds 60 km × 60 km. However, these values are upper estimates of the remote cloud effects and they are found only for special cloud structures. Since these structures might occur but cannot be regarded as typical, different satellite observed cloud formations (horizontal resolution about 1 km × 1 km) have also been investigated. For these more common cloud distributions we find remote cloud effects to be distinctly smaller than the corresponding upper estimates, e.g., for a sector with base size of 25 km × 25 km the surface UV irradiance error due to ignoring the actual remote clouds and replacing their influence with periodic horizontal boundary conditions is less than 3%, whereas the upper estimate of remote clouds effect would suggest an error close to 10%.     

A note on the Aitken nuclei and ion flow measurements in the lower stratosphere

In the light of new measurements of small aerosol particles in the lower stratosphere, some of the old investigations—which were only published in part in scientific journals—are reviewed and compared. The discussion focuses on whether the Aitken nuclei (AN) size distribution up to 20 km can be described by Junge’s or log-normal density functions and under what circumstances one can find a bimodal distribution of these particles. The ion flow in correlated to the stratospheric pollution (intercept with the jet aircraft, volcanic activity) and is, in mean, directly proportional to the aircraft altitude in the undisturbed lower stratosphere. Note: The GCCPR, Univ. Missouri at Rolla, reports quoted in the article can be obtained from the author.     

Toward a physical undenstanding of earthquake scaling relations

In seismological literature, there exist two competing theories (the so-calledW model andL model) treating earthquake scaling relations between mean slip and rupture dimension and between seismic moment and rupture dimension. The core of arguments differentiating the two theories is whether the mean slip should scale with the rupture width or with the rupture length for large earthquakes. In this paper, we apply the elastic theory of dislocation to clarify the controversy. Several static dislocation models are used to simulate strike-slip earthquakes. Our results show that the mean slip scales linearly with the rupture width for small earthquakes with a rupture length smaller than the thickness of the seismogenic layer. However, for large earthquakes with a rupture length larger than the thickness of the seismogenic layer, our models show a more complicated scaling relation between mean slip and rupture dimension. When the rupture length is smaller than a cross-over length, the mean slip scales nearly linearly with the rupture length. When the rupture length is larger than a cross-over length, the mean slip approaches asymptotically a constant value and scales approximately with the rupture width. The cross-over length is a function of the rupture width and is about 75 km for earthquakes with a saturated rupture width of 15 km. We compare our theoretical predictions with observed source parameters of some large strike-slip earthquakes, and they match up well. Our results also suggest that when large earthquakes have a fixed aspect ratio of rupture length to rupture width (which seems to be the case for most subduction earthquakes) the mean slip scales with the rupture dimension in the same way as small earthquakes.     

A distribution law for relative humidity in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere derived from three years of MOZAIC measurements

Data from three years of MOZAIC measurements made it possible to determine a distribution law for the relative humidity in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Data amounting to 13.5% of the total were obtained in regions with ice supersaturation. Troposphere and stratosphere are distinguished by an ozone concentration of 130 ppbv as threshold. The probability of measuring a certain amount of ice supersaturation in the troposphere decreases exponentially with the degree of ice supersaturation. The probability of measuring a certain relative humidity in the stratosphere (both with respect to water and ice) decreases exponentially with the relative humidity. A stochastic model that naturally leads to the exponential distribution is provided. Mean supersaturation in the troposphere is about 15%, whereas ice nucleation requires 30% supersaturation on the average. This explains the frequency of regions in which aircraft induce persistent contrails but which are otherwise free of clouds. Ice supersaturated regions are 3-4 K colder and contain more than 50% more vapour than other regions in the upper troposphere. The stratospheric air masses sampled are dry, as expected, having mean relative humidity over water of 12% and over ice of 23%, respectively. However, 2% of the stratospheric data indicate ice supersaturation. As the MOZAIC measurements have been obtained on commercial flights mainly between Europe and North America, the data do not provide a complete global picture, but the exponential character of the distribution laws found is probably valid globally. Since water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas and since it might enhance the anthropogenic greenhouse effects via positive feedback mechanisms, it is important to represent its distribution correctly in climate models. The discovery of the distribution law of the relative humidity makes possible simple tests to show whether the hydrological cycle in climate models is represented in an adequate way or not.     

Determining the drift velocity of ionospheric irregularities by analyzing three mutually orthogonal projections of the HF radio signal field vector

This paper presents results of an experimental verification of our earlier suggested spectral-polarization method of measuring the interference pattern velocity by analyzing three mutually orthogonal projections of the radio signal field vector using a single receiving antenna. The measurements were made on an HF radio path about 100 km in length, with a simultaneous monitoring of the ionospheric situation using an oblique-incidence sounding chirp–ionosonde. In an effort to eliminate multipath effects, in the analysis we used nighttime intervals, for which a stable one-mode reflected radio signal was observed. It is shown that the proposed method gives the mean values of the azimuth and zenith angle which differ by no more than 2 to 5° from calculated values. Mean values of the velocity of travelling ionospheric disturbances (of order 50 m/s) and propagation directions (north-westward changing to northward by the morning hours) obtained for these time intervals are consistent with existing published data.     

Smoothing of digital elevation models and the alteration of overland flow path length distributions

DEM smoothing is a common pre-processing technique used to remove undesirable roughness from a DEM. However, it is hypothesized that smoothing straightens and reduces the length of overland flow paths, which is an important factor controlling modelled time-to-peak flow. Currently, there is a lack of research comparing how different smoothing techniques alter the distribution of overland flow path length. Four low-pass filtering techniques were applied to three fine-resolution LiDAR DEMs of varying relief: the mean filter, the median filter, the Gaussian filter, and the feature-preserving DEM smoothing (FPDEMS) filter, each with different degrees of smoothing. Downslope-distance-to-stream distributions were then derived using D8 and D∞ flow directions and statistically compared to distributions derived from the unsmoothed DEM for each study site. The results indicate that the alteration of flow path length distributions as a result of smoothing is complex. Mean flow path lengths may decrease or increase in response to smoothing, depending on landscape relief and the derivation of flow directions, and generalized flow paths may become longer. The largest increase in mean flow path lengths was 19.2 m using the 21 × 21 median filter and D8 flow directions in the high-relief study site, relative to an unsmoothed mean length of 138.6 m in this site. The largest decrease in mean flow path length was 48.9 m using the 21 × 21 mean filter and D∞ flow directions in the low-relief study site, relative to an unsmoothed mean length of 290.9 m in this site. Furthermore, minimal flow path length alterations were achieved with the Gaussian filter when gentle smoothing is required, and with the FPDEMS filter when moderate to aggressive smoothing is required. These results suggest that an appropriate smoothing method should be chosen based on the relief of the landscape and the degree of smoothing required.     

长偶极大功率可控源电磁波响应特征研究

地球物理学中关于电磁波勘探研究通常采用的是地球半空间模型.然而,对于几十公里的有限长电缆源（长偶极源）,远距离电磁波场探测必须要考虑电离层的影响,它是一个全空间问题.关于包含电离层、空气层和地球介质（我们称“地-电离层”模式）的电磁波场特征的研究在国外较少,国内几乎是空白.本文采用全空间积分方程法首先对小尺度的可控源电磁波场特征进行了研究,由于此时电离层的影响可忽略,它应该和半空间成熟的CSAMT模拟结果一致,对比结果表明,二者是一致的,验证了全空间模拟方法的可靠性和有效性.随后进行了50 km长电缆电离层和空气层高度都为100 km的“地-电离层”模式大尺度电磁波场模拟,以探讨大尺度可控源电磁波场的特征.给定频率的“地-电离层”模式电磁场的衰减曲线表明长电缆远距离电磁波场由于受电离层的作用存在衰减逐渐变小的过渡场和衰减变小的波导场.为了探讨复杂介质“地-电离层”模式电磁波特征,对“地-电离层”模式的典型地盾和地台多层介质模型进行了数值模拟,得到了偶极源长度50 km、电流200A、收发距离远达1600 km和2500 km的合理的电磁场结果.最后,对一简单含油储层结构模型进行了长偶极、大功率、远距离电磁波场响应计算.储层横向不均匀复杂结构模拟的结果表明,考虑电离层和大气层的“地-电离层”模式大尺度深层复杂介质模拟时,电磁场对深部目标体仍有很好的异常响应.     

重震反演中国东北地壳上地幔三维密度结构

本文利用重力和地震P波到时数据反演得到了中国东北地区地壳上地幔三维密度结构.与单一的重力或地震反演相比,重震反演一方面有效地克服了重力反演结果垂向分辨率低的问题,另一方面也提高了地震反演结果的可靠性.结果显示:中国东北地区的地壳及上地幔剩余密度异常分布与构造单元具有明显的相关性,造山带对应低密度异常,盆地对应高密度异常;区域内火山下方有明显的低密度体存在,可能是由于太平洋板块俯冲进入上地幔并部分滞留,在滞留板块深部脱水和软流圈热物质共同作用下产生了上涌岩浆,喷发后形成了火山.     

2003年新疆巴楚-伽师地震序列的双差法重新定位研究

将近台记录和区域台网数据联合用于双差地震定位算法,对2003年新疆巴楚-伽师MS68强震后404个ML≥35余震序列进行双差法重新精确定位,并对其进行了理论上的可行性分析. 精定位后定位结果与传统定位方法的原始定位结果进行比较发现：（1）精定位后震中分布图像更加集中,与当地的烈度考察和震源机制解结果更加协调;（2）震源深度优势分布集中在15～25km以内,与当地存在深度为10km以上低速沉积层的地质构造情况相一致;（3）精定位后定位残差由原来的394s降为024s,水平向估算误差平均可控制在11km以内,垂直向估算误差平均可控制在24km.     

The present-day and future impact of NOx emissions from subsonic aircraft on the atmosphere in relation to the impact of NOx surface sources

The effect of present-day and future NO_x emissions from aircraft on the NO_x and ozone concentrations in the atmosphere and the corresponding radiative forcing were studied using a three-dimensional chemistry transport model (CTM) and a radiative model. The effects of the aircraft emissions were compared with the effects of the three most important anthropogenic NO_x surface sources: road traffic, electricity generation and industrial combustion. From the model results, NO_x emissions from aircraft are seen to cause an increase in the NO_x and ozone concentrations in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, and a positive radiative forcing. For the reference year 1990, the aircraft emissions result in an increase in the NO_x concentration at 250 hPa of about 20 ppt in January and 50 ppt in July over the eastern USA, the North Atlantic Flight Corridor and Western Europe, corresponding to a relative increase of about 50%. The maximum increase in the ozone concentrations due to the aircraft emissions is about 3-4 ppb in July over the northern mid-latitudes, corresponding to a relative increase of about 3-4%. The aircraft-induced ozone changes cause a global average radiative forcing of 0.025 W/m² in July. According to the ANCAT projection for the year 2015, the aircraft NO_x emissions in that year will be 90% higher than in the year 1990. As a consequence of this, the calculated NO_x perturbation by aircraft emissions increases by about 90% between 1990 and 2015, and the ozone perturbation by about 50-70%. The global average radiative forcing due to the aircraft-induced ozone changes increases by about 50% between 1990 and 2015. In the year 2015, the effects of the aircraft emissions on the ozone burden and radiative forcing are clearly larger than the individual effects of the NO_x surface sources. Taking chemical conversion in the aircraft plume into account in the CTM explicitly, by means of modified aircraft NO_x emissions, a significant reduction of the aircraft-induced NO_x and ozone perturbations is realised. The NO_x perturbation decreases by about 40% and the ozone perturbation by about 30% in July over Western Europe, the eastern USA and the North Atlantic Flight Corridor.     

2016年1月21日青海门源MS6.4余震序列重定位和主震震源机制解

2016年1月21日01时13分13.0秒（北京时间）,青海省海北州门源县发生M_S6.4地震.为了更好地认识这次地震的发震构造,本文利用青海省地震台网和甘肃省地震台网的省级固定地震台站及部分流动地震台站记录到的波形资料,通过重新拾取震相和联合HYPOINVERSE 2000与HypoDD定位方法,对2016年1月21日青海门源地震序列M_L≥1.8的189个地震事件进行了重新定位,并采用gCAP方法分别反演了主震的双力偶机制解和全矩张量解. 定位结果显示,主震位置为37.67°N、101.61°E,震源深度为11.98 km;余震序列展布方向为SE和NW两个方向、长度约16 km,震源深度优势分布为4~14 km,断层面倾向为SW方向. 利用gCAP方法得到的矩心深度在8~9 km之间. 结合野外地质调查结果,认为该次地震事件为一次逆冲型事件,其发震断层可能为北西向冷龙岭断裂与北西向民乐—大马营断裂之间的一条盲断层,推测由于印度板块与欧亚板块的碰撞挤压使得青藏高原北缘与阿拉善地块之间的东西向挤压而造成的断层应力失稳,从而形成门源地震.     

2017年四川九寨沟MS7.0地震及余震精定位研究

2017年8月8日21点19分四川省九寨沟县发生M_S7.0级强震,本文应用对相对位置和绝对位置都有较好约束的hypoRelocate精定位方法,对8月15日前M_L大于1.5的854个余震重新定位.重定位使用了6178个Pg走时、3363个Sg走时、158929个地震对的相对走时差以及74个M_L大于3.5的34个地震构造的SH尾波互相关走时.定位结果显示,余震区呈NW向分布,长度约35 km、宽度约12 km.以主震为中心,余震形成西北和东南两个丛集区,其中西北区的余震展布较东南区宽,发震断层近似垂直,与主震的震源机制解吻合.余震深度主要集中在5~15 km,主震深度为16 km.从沿断层走向的垂直剖面可见,主震周围一直延伸到地表的区域,余震相对稀少,出现明显空区,这种现象可能与主震发生时该区域的滑动位移较大,应力得到充分释放有关.另外,我们还发现震后60 h之后余震的深度明显变浅,且西北向的深度明显浅于东南向.通过对比分析流动台站布设前后余震深度的分布特点,我们认为这种时空演化差异主要是由流动台站陆续布设和使用造成的,对余震的主要分布特征影响不大.     

Modifying the intensity distribution by assessing the reliability

This article presents an application of a procedure to modify the intensity distribution by assessing the reliability. There are two potential possibilities that may influence the intensity distribution: (1) For the interpolation error, we generate a measured grid across the calculation region. When the point to station spacing is <5 km, we consider the results precise; however, some points have less precision because these are farther from the corresponding stations. When the spacing is between 5 and 50 km, we consider the results imprecise and define a reliability factor that correlates with the distance. (2) Some records may have errors that result from local site conditions, equipment problems, or some disturbance such as lightning stroke, which will lead to some grid points having an incorrect intensity. We regress the attenuation relation for sites with abnormal intensities and consider the results to be accurate when the standard deviation (STD) is <σ and inaccurate when the STD is > 2σ. We then define a reliability factor to correlate with STD between σ and 2σ, such that the intensity distribution is in accord with both wave propagation theory and the investigation intensity.     

Impact on ozone of high-speed stratospheric aircraft: effects of the emission scenario

A photochemical-transport two-dimensional model has been used to assess the impact of a projected fleet of high-speed stratospheric aircraft using different emissions scenarios. It is shown that the presence in the background atmosphere of nitric acid trihydrate aerosols is responsible for a lower stratospheric denoxification in addition to that caused by the sulfate aerosol layer. This has the effect of further decreasing the relative role of the odd nitrogen catalytic cycle for ozone destruction, so that the lower stratosphere is primarily controlled by chlorine species. The effect of aircraft injection of nitric oxides is that of decreasing the level of ClO, so that the lower stratospheric ozone (below about 20–25 km altitude) increases. The net effect on global ozone is that of a small increase even at Mach 2.4, and is enhanced by adopting emission scenarios including altitude restriction at 15 or 18 km. Reductions of the emission index (EI) of nitric oxides below relatively small values (about 15) are shown to reduce the aircraft-induced ozone increase, because of the associated smaller decrease of ClO. This conclusion is no more valid when the emission index is raised at the present values (about 45).     

用复合型法反演震源破裂过程的研究

本文探讨了用P波频谱研究不对称双侧破裂方式与正交破裂方式的方法,研究了用复合型法反演震源参数的可行性。 用这种方法反演了1966年3月8日邢台马兰6.8级地震及1966年3月22日东旺6.7级地震的震源参数。通过与用网格尝试法反演的结果及余震分布等进行比较,认为这种反演方法除了与过去的网格尝试法类似,可以得到最优拟合参数解外,还可以大大减少计算量,实现了网格尝试法难以实现的更复杂的震源模式的反演。 本文还用此方法研究了1962年3月19日广东河源6.1级地震及1969年7月26日广东阳江6.4级地震的破裂过程。研究结果表明:河源地震的破裂方式是正交三侧破裂。北西方向为主破裂,破裂长度8km,破裂速度0.6km/s. 南东方向破裂长度较短,约2km,破裂速度2.0km/s.正交侧指向南西,破裂长度3km,破裂速度0.5km/s,这个结果与余震分布图所显示的图象很相象。阳江地震的破裂方式是不对称双侧破裂。主破裂方向为北东东,破裂长度14km,破裂速度0.8km/s;朝南西西向的破裂长度5km,破裂速度0.6km/s。      

长江三峡库区秭归杨林桥镇震群成因

对三峡数字地震台网记录的2016年3—6月三峡工程库区秭归库段杨林桥镇小震群进行双差精定位,通过Snoke方法计算该震群中较大地震的震源机制解,并结合野外宏观调查等方法,分析震源参数的时空变化特征。结果表明:杨林桥镇小震群密集分布在2 km×3 km矩形范围内,有较明显的展布方向,但与邻近的仙女山断裂、九畹溪断裂和天阳坪断裂走向不一致;震群距长江干流超过10 km,与三峡水库无水利联系,无相关性;震群展布方向上有岩溶洞分布,且降雨丰富,初步判断成因类型为岩溶塌陷型。     

Ground motion observations and simulation for local earthquakes in the Campi Flegrei volcanic area

Ground motion produced by low magnitude earthquakes can be used to predict peak values in high seismic risk areas where large earthquakes data are not available. In the present work 20 local earthquakes (M_D∈[?0.3, 2.2]) occurred in the Campi Flegrei caldera during the last decade were analyzed. We followed this strategy: empirical relations were used to calibrate synthetic modeling, accounting for the source features and wave propagation effects. Once the source and path parameters of ground motion simulation were obtained from the reference data set, we extrapolated scenarios for stronger earthquakes for which real data are not available. The procedure is structured in two steps: (1) evaluation of ground motion prediction equation for Campi Flegrei area and assessment of input parameters for the source, path and site effects in order to use the finite fault stochastic approach (EXSIM code); (2) simulation of two moderate-to-large earthquake scenarios for which only historical data or partial information are available (M_w4.2 and M_w5.4). The results show that the investigated area is characterized by high attenuation of peak amplitude and not negligible site effects. The stochastic approach has revealed a good tool to calibrate source, path and site parameters on small earthquakes and to generate large earthquake scenario. The investigated magnitude range represents a lower limit to apply the stochastic method as a calibration tool, due to the small size of involved faults (fault length around 200/300 m).     

Seismic detections of the 15 February 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor from the dense ChinArray

Chin Array is a dense portable broadband seismic network to cover the entire continental China, and the Phase I is deployed along the north-south seismic belt in southwest China. In this study, we analyze seismic data recorded on the Chin Array following the February 15,2013 Chelyabinsk(Russia) meteor. This was the largest known object entering the Earth's atmosphere since the1908 Tunguska meteor. The seismic energy radiated from this event was recorded by seismic stations worldwide including the dense Chin Array that are more than 4000 km away. The weak signal from the meteor event was contaminated by a magnitude 5.8 Tonga earthquake occurred *20 min earlier. To test the feasibility of detecting the weak seismic signals from the meteor event, we compute vespagram and perform F-K analysis to the surface-wave data. We identify a seismic phase with back azimuth(BAZ) of 329.7° and slowness of 34.73 s/deg, corresponding to the surface wave from the Russian meteor event(BAZ *325.97°). The surface magnitude(MS) of the meteor event is 3.94 ± 0.18. We also perform similar analysis on the data from the broadband array F-net in Japan, and find the BAZ of the surface waves to be316.61°. With the different BAZs of Chin Array and F-net,we locate the Russian meteor event at 58.80°N, 58.72°E.The relatively large mislocation(*438 km as compared with 55.15°N, 61.41°E by others) may be a result of thebending propagation path of surface waves, which deviates from the great circle path. Our results suggest that the dense Chin Array and its subarrays could be used to detect weak signals at teleseismic distances.     

The phase velocities of Rayleigh waves and the lateral variation of lithospheric structure in Tibetan Plateau

According to a Sino-U. S. joint project, eleven broadband digital PASSCAL seismometers had been deployed inside the Tibetan Plateau, of which 7 stations were on the profile from Lhasa to Golmud and other 4 stations situated at Maxin, Yushu, Xigatze and Linzhi. Dispersions and phase velocities of the Rayleigh surface waves (10s–120s) were obtained on five paths distributed in the different blocks of Tibetan Plateau. Inversions of the S-wave velocity structures in Songpan-Ganzi block, Qiang-Tang block, Lhasa block and the faulted rift zone were obtained from the dispersion data. The results show that significant lateral variation of the S-wave velocity structures among the different blocks exists. The path from Wenquan to Xigatze (abbreviated as Wndo-Xiga) passes through the rift-zone of Yadong-Anduo. The phase velocities of Rayleigh waves from 10s to 100s on this path are significantly higher than that on other paths. The calculated mean crustal velocity on this path is 3.8 km/s, much greater than that on other paths, where mean crustal velocities of 3.4–3.5 km/s are usually observed. Low velocity zones with different thicknesses and velocities are observed in the middle-lower crust for different paths. Songpan-Ganzi block, located in the northern part of Tibetan Plateau is characterized by a thinner crust of 65 km thick and a prominent low velocity zone in the upper mantle. The low velocity zone with a velocity of 4.2 km/s is located at a depth form 115 km to 175 km. While in other blocks, no low velocity zone in the upper mantle is observed. The value of Sn in Songpan-Ganzi is calculated to be 4.5 km/s, while those in Qiang-Tang and Lhasa blocks are about 4.6 km/s. The Chinese version of this paper appeared in the Chinese edition ofActa Seismologica Sinica,14, Supp., 566–573, 1992.