微波遥感海上大气可降水和云液态含水量

根据历史探空资料,对西太平洋海域中有代表性的热带和亚热带地区的云天大气做了l.35cm和8.5mm波段的辐射传输计算,揭示了海上云天辐射传输的某此特征。在此基础上,对原有的一种反演云天大气可降水(Q)及云的垂直积分液态含水量(L)的方法做了相应的改进。 1985年12月至1986年1月用船载双波长微波辐射计取得的西太平洋热带海域中的实际观测结果。着重给出了该海域中Q及L的日变化,对流云Q和L场的水平结构及弱冷锋过境时Q及L的演变等方面的个例。 此外,模式计算及海上观测都表明,8.5mm波长辐射计也可以单独探测海上晴空大气可降水。在此基础上,提出了有可能用两波长辐射计的独立测值进行相互比较来判断视野中是否有云。     

华东地区大气本底污染的降水酸度及其化学组分的分析

本文对1984年6月—1986年12月期间监测到的大气本底污染资料中的降水部分进行了分析。结果表明,华东地区区域性大气本底污染日趋严重,降水酸度逐年增加,酸雨频率逐年增大。本文还分析了酸雨形成与风的关系。对比分析了梅雨和非梅雨、雷雨和非雷雨的降水酸度差异。对本区降水的化学组分分析表明,大气中氯离子对降水酸度的影响最大。     

1986年东海与南海的海-气界面热量交换

采用实测资料计算1986年7—12月东海和南海观测海域海-气界面热量交换。结果表明：7—9月上旬,大气向观测海域输送热量是主要现象,因为这时的气温比水温高,潜热通量与感热通量出现反相变化,天气晴好,海洋大量吸热;9月中旬—12月,观测海域向大气输送热量是主要现象,东海表现得比南海更为明显,主要贡献来自潜热通量和感热通量。受冷空气影响时,感热通量重要;在热带辐合带和热带气旋系统内海-气界面热量交换强烈,大气对海洋的响应为主。     

1986年10—12月西太平洋热带及其邻近海域的大气加热场分析

本文利用1986年10—12月西太平洋的考察资料和世界月平均气候资料详细地计算了西太平洋、太平洋中部热带及其邻近地区整层气柱的辐射和热量收支。主要结果是:(1)西太平洋和太平洋中部赤道及其热带海域10—12月整层气柱是一个范围很大的强热源区,而与之相邻的赤道南北两侧的副热带海域则是较强的冷源区。我国南海也有独立的热、冷源中心。(2)上述热源区主要是降水潜热很大造成的,而冷源则是由于整层气柱辐射支出多形成的。(3)热源区的月际变化明显。     

内蒙古中东部地区大气可降水量的气候特征

基于2016—2018年GNSS/MET反演大气可降水量资料,分析了内蒙古中东部地区大气可降水量的变化特征,讨论了其与地面温度、气压和降水的关系,并对降水天气过程中水汽的变化特征进行了分析。结果表明:1)内蒙古中东部地区大气可降水量的分布主要受地形和环境因素影响,具有明显的季节变化特征。2)大气可降水量与地面温度在秋季存在显著的正相关关系,春季次之;与地面气压存在负相关关系,二者在春季相关最显著,秋季次之。3)大气可降水量与地面降水的相关关系在夏季最显著,春季和秋季次之。在降水发生前1—2 h,大气可降水量会有一次增长过程;降水期间大气可降水量通常维持高值,且均高于当月均值;降水结束后,大气可降水量迅速下降至低值。     

中国东部夏季降水异常与青藏高原冬季积雪的关系

基于中国740站月降水、积雪、地温资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析月资料,采用相关分析、合成分析和最大协方差法,研究了1979—2008年青藏高原冬季积雪异常与长江中下游夏季降水的关系及其可能的影响机制。结果表明:(1)在年际时间尺度上,青藏高原中北部12月—翌年1月积雪指数与长江中下游夏季降水呈显著正相关。在年代际时间尺度上,1990s—2000s的高原积雪指数与长江中下游夏季降水具有较好的同位相变化特征。表明高原中北部12月—翌年1月积雪指数对长江中下游夏季降水异常具有较好的指示意义,可作为预测长江中下游夏季降水年际年代变化的依据。(2)高原12月—翌年1月积雪异常偏多,是长江中下游夏季洪涝的一个强信号,12月—翌年1月积雪指数正异常年与长江中下游夏季降水正异常年有很好的一致性。(3)高原冬季积雪异常影响长江中下游夏季降水的可能途径是:高原冬季积雪异常通过影响同期及其后春季地温,再由春季地温以某种方式把异常信号维持到夏季。之后,地温异常又改变了局地地气热量交换,导致周围大气环流异常,从而影响到其下游的降水过程。     

1986—1987年北半球冬季亚澳地区大气环流异常及其与西太平洋SST异常的联系

1986—1987年冬季亚澳地区大气环流异常主要表现在北半球中纬盛行纬向气流,副热带西风急流、西太平洋副热带高压脊及ITCZ位置异常偏北;西北太平洋热带气旋活动频繁;赤道盛行异常西风和异常南风;澳大利亚海平面气压偏高等现象。在这种大气环流异常形势下,东亚地区冬季风偏弱,冷空气主要在偏北地区东移,温度异常偏高,中国北方降水偏多,南方降水偏少。与此同时,澳大利亚夏季风偏弱并推迟一个月建立,整个澳大利亚地区降水偏少。大气环流异常是从低纬开始的。ITCZ位置异常偏于北半球,比其他环流系统异常要早一个月以上发生。1986年夏季以来,西太平洋赤道附近及其偏北地区SST始终维持异常偏高,可能是造成ITCZ异常偏北的原因,并进而引起瓦克环流减弱和南方涛动指数(SOI)偏低,从而对1986—1987年的ENSO事件的发生起了促进的作用。1986年夏秋季节西北太平洋30°N950hPa上北风异常,冬季南风异常又可能是引起西太平洋SST异常分布的原因,因此,1986—1987年冬季亚澳地区的异常事件必须从海—气相互作用的观点来加以说明。      

夏季热带印度洋大气热源主模态与中国东部降水的关系

利用1979—2008年NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和中国区域160站降水资料,分析了热带印度洋及南亚地区夏季大气热源的气候特征,探讨了热带印度洋夏季大气热源主模态与中国东部降水的关系。结果表明:与春、秋、冬季相比,夏季大气热源强度强、范围广,热源最强中心在孟加拉湾北部大陆边缘;当孟加拉湾、苏门答腊岛西部海域、阿拉伯海的中东部以及恒河平原等地的夏季大气热源增加(减少),而赤道印度洋的中西部地区、阿拉伯海北部边缘等地的夏季热源减少(增加)时,有利于长江中下游地区、华北北部、东北以及西南大部分地区夏季降水的增加(减少),不利于华北南部以及江南地区尤其华南地区的夏季降水的增加(减少);热带印度洋夏季大气热源的主模态主要通过影响对流层高、低层的环流来影响中国东部降水。值得注意的是,与热带印度洋夏季大气热源的主模态时间系数的年际变化相比,其年代际变化对中国东部降水影响更显著。      

华南春季降水及其季节内振荡强度的年代际变化特征

利用NCEP和中国台站资料,探讨了华南春季降水和降水季节内振荡(Intraseasonal oscillation,ISO)强度的年代际变化特征。经验正交函数EOF分析结果显示,第一模态显示全国春季降水量以及降水ISO强度较大区域均分布在华南地区。两者间的相关关系比较显著,分别经历了3段年代际变化,即1958—1973年偏少(偏弱)、1974—1990年偏多(偏强)以及1991—2007年偏少(偏弱)。并且,强降水和强降水ISO事件天数和强度也经历了偏少(偏弱)、偏多(偏强)和偏少(偏弱)的变化。但强降水ISO事件天数和强度占总强降水的比率呈现减少的趋势。在不同的年代,大气环流和海温异常对降水和降水ISO强度的变化起了主要作用,但其中的作用又各有不同。在1958—1973年,周边海温、北太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)与大气环流起了共同作用;在1974—1990年,周边海温影响不大,PDO和大气环流起了主要作用;在1991—2007年,PDO和大气环流的相互配置抑制了周边海温的影响。     

江淮夏季降水季节内振荡和海气背景场的关系

本文利用1954～2005年中国740站逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,分析江淮夏季降水季节内振荡(ISO)的年际变化,并讨论了异常年的海气背景特征.诊断分析的结果表明:(1)当江淮夏季降水ISO活跃时,江淮流域、孟加拉湾、南海及其以东海域和日本南部海区上空大气都表现出显著的季节内振荡特征.在江淮夏季降水不...     

大气水汽中双水缔合分子的浓度

用化学热力学方法计算了在标准气压下,不同温度的饱和水汽中双水缔合分子的浓度以及在一定水汽压条件下双水缔合分子的浓度随温度的变化。计算结果与8—13μ大气窗区水汽吸收系数随温度的变化进行了比较,证明双水缔合分子的吸收是8—13μ水汽连续吸收的主要因子。     

Bright water: hydrosols, water conservation and climate change

Because air?Cwater and water?Cair interfaces are equally refractive, cloud droplets and microbubbles dispersed in bodies of water reflect sunlight in much the same way. The lifetime of sunlight-reflecting microbubbles, and hence the scale on which they may be applied, depends on Stokes Law and the influence of ambient or added surfactants. Small bubbles backscatter light more efficiently than large ones, opening the possibility of using highly dilute micron-radius hydrosols to substantially brighten surface waters. Such microbubbles can noticeably increase water surface reflectivity, even at volume fractions of parts per million and such loadings can be created at an energy cost as low as J m^???2 to initiate and mW m^???2 to sustain. Increasing water albedo in this way can reduce solar energy absorption by as much as 100 W m^???2, potentially reducing equilibrium temperatures of standing water bodies by several Kelvins. While aerosols injected into the stratosphere tend to alter climate globally, hydrosols can be used to modulate surface albedo, locally and reversibly, without risk of degrading the ozone layer or altering the color of the sky. The low energy cost of microbubbles suggests a new approach to solar radiation management in water conservation and geoengineering: Don??t dim the Sun; Brighten the water.     

Determination of water vapor and liquid water content by an iterative method

Summary A simple method of retrieving water vapor and liquid water content is presented and validated by applying the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager data using ground truth data from Japan. The method is based on an iterative technique which uses model functions of relating two geophysical parameters to brightness temperature. Water vapor is found by a model function of relating water vapor content to brightness temperature at 22.235 GHz. Liquid water content is found by two model functions. One function defines a level of clear sky condition, and the other gives a ratio of liquid water content to brightness temperature increased from clear sky conditions. The retrieved water vaporcontent is compared with upper air observations at Chichijima Island. The rms of errors is estimated at 3.3 Kg m^–2. The retrieved liquid water content is related to monthly precipitation observed at Chichijima Island, and a correlation coefficient of 0.68 is obtained.With 7 Figures     

Pricing China's irrigation water

Many development agencies and other actors are advocating that China adopt a system of water markets or of high water prices in order to resolve the inefficiencies of irrigation agriculture and to supply sufficient water for growing urban and industrial uses. We argue that this proposal rests on a series of propositions: that the price of water is too low to encourage farmers to be efficient; that farmers are not charged volumetric prices and so are not encouraged to conserve water; that water is scarce largely because farmers are profligate in their use of water; and that proper pricing of water will not affect equity. None of these contentions is true. Farmers have to pay not only the official charges for water but also the much higher costs of pumping it onto their fields. Once pumping is included, farmers are paying prices that are volumetric. Furthermore, the inefficiency of farmers arises in large part from the manner in which water is delivered to them: the system offers no rewards for care in the use of water and instead rewards greed. And, finally, although it might be true that higher prices do not affect equity within a village, in fact they would have substantial effects on inter-sectoral equity, with farmers becoming worse off in comparison to urban dwellers. The paper concludes by sketching a more appropriate scheme for raising the efficiency of use of irrigation water.     

Precipitable water over Canada

Numerical experiments have been performed to determine the way in which initial errors of relatively small horizontal extent propagate in a barotropic primitive equations model. Six‐day forecasts are made with the model, starting from initial conditions which are assumed to be free from errors. The forecasts are then repeated using the same initial data, except for a small area near the Gulf of Alaska where an error in the form of a low pressure system is added. The difference between the two forecasts, or error, is then examined as a function of time. The results obtained from sixteen cases run with winter data indicate that on the average the largest value in the error pattern travels, in six days, from the Gulf of Alaska to the western tip of the Great Lakes and decreases in amplitude by a factor slightly greater than 2 for an initial amplitude of 8.4 dam at 500 mb. The root mean square error computed over the entire forecast area, on the other hand, is found to remain nearly constant for the first 24 hours and to increase systematically thereafter, with a doubling time of 5 days.     

Dew water collector for potable water in Ajaccio (Corsica Island, France)

We report on the development of an inexpensive radiative condenser for collecting atmospheric vapor. Based on the experience gained using a small working model in Grenoble (France), a prototype of 10×3 m² was established in Ajaccio (Corsica, France). The condensing surface is a rectangular foil made of TiO₂ and BaSO₄ microspheres embedded in polyethylene and has an angle of 30° with respect to horizontal. The hollow part of the device, thermally isolated, faces the direction of the dominant nocturnal wind. Dew measurements were correlated with meteorological data and compared to dew condensed on a horizontal polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA, Plexiglas) reference plate. The plate served as a reference standard unit and was located nearby. Between July 22, 2000 and November 11, 2001 (478 days), there were 145 dew days for the reference plate (30%), but 214 dew days for the condenser (45%). This yield corresponds to 767 l (3.6 l, on average, per dew day). The maximum yield in the period was 11.4 l/day. Dew mass can be fitted to a simple model that predicts dew production from simple meteorological data (temperature, humidity, wind velocity, cloud cover). Chemical analyses of the water collected from the plate were performed from October 16, 1999 to July 16, 2000 and from the condenser, from July 17, 2000 to March 17, 2001. The following parameters were investigated: suspended solids, pH, concentration of SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, K⁺, Ca²⁺ ions. Only Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ ions were sometimes found significant. Wind direction analyses revealed that Cl⁻ is due to the sea spray and SO₄²⁻ to the combustion of fuel by an electrical plant located in the Ajaccio Gulf. Except for a weak acidity (average pH≈6) and high concentration of suspended solids, dew water fits the requirements for potable water in France with reference to the above ions.     

极端高温事件对城市用水量和供水管网系统的影响

频发的极端高温事件将导致城市用水量增长,增加城市供水设施的运行风险。综合采用气候相似性、终端用水模拟、供水管网系统水力学模拟等方法,构建了极端高温事件对城市用水量及供水管网系统影响的定量评估方法。以北京某新城区为研究案例,模拟结果表明极端高温事件将使日用水量较夏季常态增加5.7%,人均日用水量增加19.83 L,其中早晚用水高峰时段增幅较大,导致供水管网系统中不能满足28 m水头要求的节点比例增加了约13个百分点。     

垃圾填埋场渗滤液水量水质预测方法研究

对预测垃圾填埋场渗滤液产生量的3种模型进行了比较,提出推荐采用Q=C×I×A×10-3公式为填埋场渗滤液产生量的预测模型;以辽宁某垃圾填埋场为例,通过模型预测值与现场实测值的对比,分析了预测模型的可靠性与准确性,为填埋场渗滤液产生量的预测及收集处理系统的设计提供了科学依据;同时,根据国内外渗滤液水质实测值,分析了水质特点。     

Globalisation of water resources: international virtual water flows in relation to crop trade

The water that is used in the production process of a commodity is called the ‘virtual water’ contained in the commodity. International trade of commodities brings along international flows of virtual water. The objective of this paper is to quantify the volumes of virtual water flows between nations in the period 1995–1999 insofar related to international crop trade and to analyse national virtual water balances in relation to national water needs and water availability. The basic approach is to multiply international crop trade flows (ton/yr) by their associated virtual water content (m³ ton⁻¹). The calculations show that the global volume of crop-related international virtual water flows between nations was 695 Gm³ yr⁻¹ in average over the period 1995–1999. For comparison: the total water use by crops in the world has been estimated at 5400 Gm³ yr⁻¹. This means that 13% of the water used for crop production in the world is not used for domestic consumption but for export (in virtual form). This is a conservative estimate because only a limited number of crops––although the most important ones––have been taken into account and because crop products (such as cotton clothes) have been excluded from the study. The countries with the largest net virtual water export are United States, Canada, Thailand, Argentina and India. The largest net import appears to be in Japan, the Netherlands, the Republic of Korea, China and Indonesia.