Root tensile strength relationships and their slope stability implications of three shrub species in the Northern Apennines (Italy)

The role of root strength is important in stabilising steep hillslopes which are seasonally affected by storm-induced shallow landslides. In the Italian Apennines, steep (25–40°) slopes underlain by mudstone are generally stable if they are covered by shrubs whose roots anchor into the soil mantle. To quantify the mechanical reinforcement of roots to soil, the root tensile breaking force and the root tensile strength of three autochthonous shrub species commonly growing on stiff clay soils of the Northern Italian Apennines, Rosa canina (L.), Inula viscosa (L.) and Spartium junceum (L.), were measured by means of field and laboratory tests. For each test approximately 150 root specimens were used. The tensile force increases with increasing root diameter following a second-order polynomial regression curve. The tensile strength decreases with increasing root diameter following a power law curve. The field in situ tensile force required to break a root is always smaller than that obtained from laboratory tests for the same root diameter, although their difference becomes negligible if the root diameter is smaller than 5 mm. The influence of root tensile strength on soil shear strength was verified based on the infinite slope stability model. The root reinforcement was calculated using the number and mean diameter of roots. The factor of safety was calculated for three different soil thickness values (0.1, 0.3, and 0.6 m) and topographic slopes between 10° and 45°. The factor of safety for the combination of 0.6 m soil thickness, slopes smaller than 30°, and vegetation of I. viscosa (L.) or S. junceum (L.) is always larger than 1. If a slope is steeper, the factor of safety may be smaller than 1 for I. viscosa (L.), although it is still larger than 1 for S. junceum (L.). In the stiff clayey areas of the Northern Italian Apennines, I. viscosa (L.) mainly colonizes fan/cone/taluses and stabilises these zones up to a topographic gradient < 30° for a soil 0.6 m thick. S. junceum (L.) colonizes not only fan/cone/taluses but also headwalls and cliffs and, for a 0.6 m thick soil, it stabilises these areas up to 45°. The effectiveness of this reinforcement, however, depends strongly on the frequency of soil and seasonal grass vegetation removal due to shallow landsliding before the entrance of the shrub species.     

Vertical distribution of Artemisia halodendron root system in relation to soil properties in Horqin Sandy Land, NE China

Root distribution plays an important role in both vegetation establishment and restoration of degraded land through influencing soil property and vegetation growth. Root distribution at 0~60 cm depth of A. halodendron was investigated in Horqin Sandy Land. Soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (SN) concentration as well as carbon and nitrogen in root biomass and necromass were measured. Root length density (RLD) was estimated. Total root biomass, necromass and the RLD at 0~60 cm depth was 172 g/m², 245 g/m², and 368 m/m², respectively. Both biomass and necromass of A. halodendron roots decreased with soil depth, live roots were mainly at 0~20 cm (76% of biomass and 63% of root length), while 73% of the necromass was within 0~30 cm depth. N concentration of roots (biomass and necromass) was about 1.0% and 1.5%, respectively. There were significant differences in SOC concentration between soil layers, but insignificant for SN. Soil C/N ratio decreased with depth (P<0.05). C and N storage for belowground system at 0~60 cm decreased markedly with depth; 41.4% of C and 31.7% of N were allocated to the 0~10 cm layer. Root bio- and necromass together contained similar amount of C to that of the soil itself in the top layer. N stock was dominated by soil nitrogen at all depths, but more so in deeper layers. It is clear that differentiating between soil layers will aid in interpreting A. halodendron efficiency in soil restoration in sandy land.     

寒旱环境盐胁迫条件下两种草本植物的根系力学特性研究

本项研究选取适宜于西宁盆地及其周边地区生长的2种优势草本植物垂穗披碱草(Elymus nutans Griseb)和细茎冰草(Agropyron trachycaulum (Linn.) Gaertn.)作为供试种,通过室内种植培育方式,采用浓度梯度分别为50mmol/L、100mmol/L、150mmol/L、200mmol/L的Na₂SO₄溶液对2种植物进行盐胁迫处理。在盐胁迫试验处理后的第15d、30d和45d时,分别测定2种植物单根抗拉力和单根抗拉强度。试验结果表明：相同盐胁迫浓度时,2种植物单根抗拉力随生长期增长呈逐渐增大,单根抗拉强度随生长期增加表现为逐渐降低的变化规律;相同生长期时,2种植物单根抗拉力随着胁迫液浓度由0mmol/L增加至200mmol/L时表现为逐渐减小趋势,单根抗拉强度则随着胁迫液浓度增加呈逐渐增大的变化规律;进一步研究表明,在相同胁迫浓度和相同生长期条件下,细茎冰草单根抗拉力和单根抗拉强度分别较垂穗披碱草高0.008N~0.025N和9.646MPa~72.807MPa;2种草本植物单根抗拉力与根径之间呈指数函数关系;2种草本单根抗拉强度分别随根径的增加而逐渐减小,且均与根径呈幂函数关系。本该研究成果对于进一步探讨寒旱环境盐胁迫条件下,草本植物根系力学强度特征及其变化规律具有重要理论研究价值,同时对于有效防治研究区水土流失、浅层滑坡等地质灾害的发生具有实际指导意义。     

新疆3种主要森林类型根系生物量变化特征研究

根系生物量是准确评估森林生态系统碳储量及碳汇功能的一个重要数据。采用标准木全收获法研究了新疆3种主要森林树种根系生物量,并分析了其在垂直梯度上的分配规律和随年龄的变化特点。结果表明：（1）新疆杨、西伯利亚落叶松和阿勒泰冷杉根系总生物量分别为43.409、42.152 t/hm²和16.19 t/hm²;（2）根系生物量随土壤深度增加迅速减少,约88.37%以上的根系生物量集中分布在0～40 cm土层中,在超过40 cm土层中,根系生物量降至较低水平（约为8.3%）;（3）随林分年龄的增长,各林分根系总生物量呈递增趋势,在中龄林根系生物量增长速率达到最大。各级根系中粗根、中根及细根生物量随年龄的增长所占比例呈现递减规律,而其根桩和毛细根生物量差异较大,所占比例随年龄的增大基本呈增大趋势;（4）在表层土壤中各林分在林木的幼龄及中龄阶段根系生物量都处于较高比例,之后呈下降趋势后维持在一定水平基本不变,而深层土壤中各林分在幼龄阶段都处于一个较低的水平,后以一定比例逐渐增长;（5）新疆杨、西伯利亚落叶松和阿勒泰冷杉根系年平均生产力分别为：1.070 8 t·hm^-2·a^-1、1.014 4 t·hm^-2·a^-1和0.910 7 t·hm^-2·a^-1。     

寒旱环境盐胁迫条件下两种草本植物的根系力学特性研究

选取适宜于西宁盆地及其周边地区生长的2种优势草本植物垂穗披碱草(Elymus nutans Griseb.)和细茎冰草(Agropyron trachycaulum(Linn.) Gaertn.)作为试验供试种,通过室内种植培育方式,采用浓度梯度分别为50 mmol/L、100 mmol/L、150 mmol/L、200 mmol/L的Na_2SO_4溶液对2种植物进行盐胁迫处理。在盐胁迫试验处理后的第15 d、30 d和45 d,分别测定2种植物单根抗拉力和单根抗拉强度。结果表明:相同盐胁迫浓度时,2种植物单根抗拉力随生长期增长而逐渐增大,单根抗拉强度随生长期增加而逐渐降低;相同生长期,2种植物单根抗拉力随着胁迫液浓度由0 mmol/L增加至200 mmol/L时,表现为逐渐减小趋势;进一步研究表明,在相同胁迫浓度和相同生长期条件下,细茎冰草单根抗拉力和单根抗拉强度分别较垂穗披碱草高0.008～0.025 N和9.646～72.807 MPa;2种草本植物单根抗拉力与根径之间呈指数函数关系;2种草本单根抗拉强度分别随根径的增加而逐渐减小,且均与根径呈幂函数关系。研究成果对于进一步探讨寒旱环境盐胁迫条件下,草本植物根系力学强度特征及其变化规律具有重要理论价值,同时对于有效防治研究区水土流失、浅层滑坡等地质灾害的发生具有实际指导意义。     

青藏高原东北部观赏地被植物马蔺根系固土护坡效应研究

为了进一步丰富青藏高原东北部地区植被护坡工程植物选择,推动区内植被护坡工程实用性和观赏性兼顾发展。该项研究以青藏高原东北部观赏地被植物马蔺为研究对象,以青海省大通县朔北藏族乡至东峡镇之间区域为研究区,在野外植物分布特征和生长特征调查的基础上,结合单根拉伸试验和重塑根-土复合体三轴压缩试验,定量评价了野生马蔺植株和根系生长特征、单根抗拉特性以及根系对土体抗剪强度的增强效应。试验结果表明：马蔺主要分布在研究区内洪积扇、坡积裙和河漫滩等地貌单元,立地条件包括上述地貌单元内的林下坡地、田间、道旁、湿地、荒地等;通过选取两处试验区开展调查可知,马蔺平均株高、冠幅和植株密度分别为75.22±11.40 cm、106.09±25.62 cm和1.51±0.55 株/m2;马蔺标准株根系分布深度可达50 cm,主要分布在0~30 cm深度范围内,根幅约40~50 cm;马蔺根径为0.20～0.70 mm,单根抗拉力、抗拉强度和延伸率平均值分别为7.94±2.91 N,46.30± 11.06 MPa和54.17%±17.08%,随着根径的增大,单根抗拉力和单根抗拉强度分别呈幂函数增大和幂函数降低关系,单根极限延伸率随着根径的增大呈逐渐增大变化趋势,但二者之间未表现出相对显著性的关系;马蔺根系对土体黏聚力和内摩擦角均有增强作用,可分别显著增强0~30 cm和0~10 cm深度范围内土体黏聚力和内摩擦角,且对土体黏聚力的增强作用较为显著。该项研究成果对于选用观赏地被植物马蔺进行研究区坡面水土流失、浅层滑坡等地质灾害现象的生态防护工作,具有理论研究价值和实际指导意义。     

高寒沙地乌柳(Salix cheilophila)林根系分布特征

对青海共和高寒沙地植被恢复区不同林龄(6年、11年、16年和21年)乌柳(Salix cheilophila)人工防护林根系分布及根量进行了调查、测定,同时测定了土壤有机质含量的垂向变化。结果表明:①不同林龄乌柳林根系主要由中根和细根构成,其数目占土壤剖面根系总数的90%以上,其中又以直径小于2.0mm细根所占比例最高,细根占剖面根系总数的50%以上;②各林龄乌柳根系在0~50cm土层分布较为集中,在30cm以下土层,根量随深度的增加逐渐减少,6年生乌柳林根系垂直分布在0~130cm,20年生乌柳可达200cm,随植被恢复时间的增长,各林龄根量显著增加(p0.05);③各林龄乌柳林有明显发达的垂直主根,属典型的垂直状根系,随植株不断生长,根系表现出深根性;④以不同深度根系重量作为解释变量,以土壤有机质含量作为响应变量,回归结果显示不同林龄乌柳林根系重量显著影响土壤有机质含量(p0.001),这也为评价沙地植被改良土壤功能提供了依据。     

A greenhouse study on root dynamics of cactus pears, Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta

Over the last 10 years a great interest in spineless cactus pear was shown in the drier areas in terms of both fresh fruit and fodder production. However, there is a lack of knowledge on quantitative data on root dynamics of these plants needed to fully understand its potential under water limiting conditions. This study aimed at quantifying the effects of water stress on the growth of tap roots, side roots and rain roots of the species Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller (cultivar Morado—green cladode) and O. robusta Wendl. (cultivar Monterey—blue cladode). One-year-old cladodes were planted in root boxes and pots (2002/2003 season) that were kept in the greenhouse at day/night temperatures of 25–30 °C/15–18 °C. Placing the cladodes flat on the soil, more areoles came in contact with the soil and therefore more roots developed in both species with an average of only 3.4% areole complexes not rooting. Each areole complex formed on average 3 roots. The highest daily tap root growth was 42 and 36 mm for O. ficus-indica and O. robusta, respectively. Tap root growth increased in the morning with water stress for both species but decreased in the afternoon. Side root growth increased with water stress, with that of O. robusta more per tap root than O. ficus-indica. O. robusta showed a finer root system than O. ficus-indica. The side roots grew as much as 8 and 5 mm per day for O. ficus-indica and O. robusta, respectively. Whitish rain roots developed on the established roots within the first hour after rewetting the soil and grew for only 3 days. Rain roots grew up to 7 and 5 mm within a day for O. ficus-indica and O. robusta, respectively. Considering all studied aspects of their roots systems, O. robusta appears to be better adapted to drought (less sensitive to water stress) than O. ficus-indica.     

乔木的斜向支撑效能及其坡面稳定意义

以滇中地区的松林为例,初步定量探讨了乔木对顺坡有的浅层土壤的斜向支撑作用。研究,树根可能提供的锚固力可达０．６９ｋＮ;在有效的锚固作用下,单株树干的支撑力（抗滑力）最高为０．４２ｋＮ,平均为０．１７ｋＮ;受斜向支撑作用的影响,本来不稳定的浅层松散物质的稳定性系数Ｆ值,由０．５４提高到１．１０,使坡面成为稳定斜坡。如果在特定条件下,树根的锚固力全部转化为支撑力,坡面的Ｆ值可以达到２．８２。     

Vertical distribution of fine roots of Tamarix ramosissima in an arid region of southern Nevada

To increase our understanding of soil water and nitrogen use strategies of invasive Tamarix ramosissima during dry seasons, the vertical distributions of fine roots and their associations with soil properties were examined in the Virgin River floodplain, southern Nevada, United States. We measured morphological traits of fine roots, such as fine-root mass density, fine-root length density, specific root length and specific root area at 10 cm increments to a depth of 2 m. Soil properties were analyzed at 20 cm increments. More than 60% of fine root length and biomass was concentrated at depths between 20 and 60 cm. Soil nitrogen (N) concentration had strong and positive relationships with fine-root mass and length densities, suggesting that the fine-root distribution may be influenced by soil N availability. A weak but positive relationship was observed between soil moisture and fine-root mass density. Soil salinity had no relationship with root morphological traits. These findings suggest that T. ramosissima fine roots may contribute to N uptake from the upper soil layers during dry seasons. This might be an important advantage over native riparian tree species in arid riparian areas of the southwestern United States.     

浑善达克沙地黄柳人工林根系分布及生物量研究

 对浑善达克沙地一年生、二年生、三年生黄柳人工林根系分布及生物量进行了调查、测定。结果表明:①在流动沙丘上人工栽植的黄柳,其根系主要由直径小于2.0 mm的中根和细根构成,其数目占剖面根系总数的90%以上,其中又以直径小于0.5 mm细根所占比例最高,其数目占剖面根系总数的50%以上。②根系主要分布在10～30 cm的土层中,可见其根系主要吸收10～30 cm土层内的水分和养分。③根系重量在各土层中呈随土层深度加深而降低的分布趋势。④根系主要呈水平分布,水平根非常发达,随着植株的不断生长,这一特征越来越明显。     

基于根系解剖结构的金沙江干热河谷土壤侵蚀速率估算

基于侵蚀过程会导致树木生长环境变化,进而改变根系生长生理特征的基本研究思想,以金沙江干热河谷龙川江流域为典型区,从树根细胞解剖结构和组合特征的变异中提取土壤侵蚀信息,探索和发展了基于树木生理生态的土壤侵蚀研究新方法与技术。结果表明,不同侵蚀强度下根系的年轮分布特征不一致,其中偏心率大小顺序为:局部暴露根系>浅埋根系>完全暴露根系,且偏心率与根系以上土层厚度、暴露程度存在显著性相关;根系导管面积是反演侵蚀过程的敏感指标,早材导管面积的变异是确定根系暴露时间的重要依据之一;龙川江流域土壤流失厚度为1.47~4.47 mm/a,平均侵蚀模数约为3 692 t(/km2.a)。     

植物根系吸水特性研究

植物根系吸水特性是ＳＰＡＣ系统中水分运移规律研究的重要内容。现有的根系吸水模型大致可分为３类;经验模型,半经验半理论模型和理论模型,此领域的研究最早始于５０年代末６０年代初,进入７０年代,各种根系吸水模型相继出现。随着计算机科学的发展与普及以及ＳＰＡＣ水分传输动态模拟研究的深入。在８０年代涌现了大批研究成果。     

Amelioration of soil fertility by woody perennials in cropping fields: evaluation of three tree species in the semi-arid zone of Nigeria

Soil was sampled from cropping fields in radial patterns from beneathAcacia albida, Parkia bigloboza(Jacq.) Benth. andEucalyptus camaldulensisDehnh. near Zaria, Nigeria. Results of analysis show a significant coarsening of soil texture and a decrease in organic matter and cation exchange capacity with increasing distance from all three tree species at a depth of 0–15 cm. Concentrations of nitrogen and some exchangeable cations decreased significantly with increasing distance from beneath acacia and parkia, and soil pH decreased with increasing distance from eucalyptus. The implication of the results for land management are discussed in relation to increasing productivity and soil use sustainability.     

Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and zinc on the growth, osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit

Three-week old soybean (Glycine max) plants were subjected to a factorial combination of four regimes of soil matric water potential (ψ_m=−0·03, −0·5, −1·0 and −1·5 MPa), two levels of supplementary Zn (O and 20 mgl⁻¹) and two levels of foliar IAA application (O and 10 mgl⁻¹). Under control conditions (no Zn, no IAA), increasing soil drying progressively retarded shoot and root growth (length and dry mass production), reduced leaf relative water content (RWC) and decreased the contents of chlorophyll (Chl) and shoot soluble sugars (SS), but increased soluble sugar content of roots and lowered osmotic water potential of shoots and roots (osmotic adjustment). Total free amino acid (TAA) content increased in shoots but decreased in roots whereas contents of soluble proteins (SP) decreased in shoots and roots. The effect of water stress was statistically significant (p<0·05) and had a major effect (as indicated by η²values) on leaf RWC, shoot and root dry masses and osmotic potential. Supplementary Zn improved root growth at all levels of stress and shoot growth under severe stress. Improvement of growth was positively correlated with the internal tissue Zn concentrations (r=0·91 and 0·86 for shoot and 0·94 and 0·82 for root length and dry mass respectively). Exogenous IAA raised (p<0·05) RWC, Chl, DM (slightly), root SS, and SP, whereas shoot TAA was lowered. Effects on root TAA and shoot SS were more complex: they were lowered at zero stress and raised under severe stress. IAA and Zn in combination had additive effects on Chl, growth and osmotic potential, but their combined effects on SP and TAA were more complex. It is concluded that the treatment of soybean plants grown under conditions of low soil water potentials and Zn deficiency with Zn and IAA solutions counteracted the deleterious effects of stress, especially at high stress levels, and helped stressed plants to grow successfully under these adverse unfavourable conditions.     

云南元谋干热河谷造林区植被生长与土壤渗透性的关系

通过云南元谋干热河谷造林区林分生物量及生产力指标与双环入渗试验的土壤入渗性能指标的相关分析，发现乔木生长与土壤渗透性具有显著正相关关系(P＜0.01)，地表枯枝落叶量与土壤渗透性的相关关系也较密切(P＜0.05)，而灌草生长与土壤渗透性无显著相关。研究指出，改善土壤入渗性能的措施，如沿等高线开深沟种植、禁止放牧践踏、保护地表枯枝落叶等均对林木生长有积极的影响。     

Soil erosion rates in rangelands of northeastern Patagonia: A dendrogeomorphological analysis using exposed shrub roots

Soil erosion is an important process of land degradation in many rangelands and a significant driver of desertification in the world's drylands. Dendrogeomorphology is an alternative to traditional methods for determining soil erosion rate. Specifically, the vertical distance between the upper portion of exposed roots and the actual soil surface can be used as a bioindicator of erosion since plant establishment. In this study, we determined (i) the soil erosion rate from exposed roots of the dwarf shrub Margyricarpus pinnatus [Lam.] Kuntze in two ecological sites in the northeastern rangelands of Patagonia and (ii) the relationship between shrub age and upper root diameter. We selected two ecological sites, a pediment-like plateau and a flank pediment, where the dominant soils were Xeric Haplocalcids and Xeric Calciargids, respectively. The soil erosion rates in the pediment-like plateau and in the flank pediment were 2.4 and 3.1 mm yr^− 1, respectively. Data clearly indicate a high rate of soil erosion during the mean 8-year life span of the dwarf shrubs in degraded patches, which represent ~ 10% of surface cover in the study area. Simple linear regression analysis yielded a highly significant predictive model for age estimation of M. pinnatus plants using the upper root diameter as a predictor variable. The measurement of ground lowering against datable exposed roots represents a simple method for the determination of soil erosion rates. In combination with other soil surface features, it was used to infer the episodic nature of soil erosion. This approach could be particularly useful for monitoring the effects of land management practices on recent soil erosion and for the establishment of records in regions where historical data regarding this process are scarce or absent.     

云南松侧根摩擦型根土粘合键的破坏机制及模型

以云南松侧根为研究对象，探讨了侧向牵引情况下，云南松测根与土壤之间摩擦型根土粘合键的力学作用机制，阐述了侧根从土中拔出时，摩擦型根土粘合健破坏的实质，并基于莫尔-库仑破坏准则建立了极限平衡条件下的摩擦型根土粘合键破坏模型。该模型除了可以描述摩擦型根土粘合键的破坏原理外，还可用于定量地估算、预测摩擦型根土粘合健能够提供的最大牵引阻力。最后，通过实测与模型理论计算结果进行了比较，结果表明，所建立的模型具有一定的精度和适用性。     

Woodland expansion’s influence on belowground carbon and nitrogen in the Great Basin U.S.

Vegetation changes associated with climate shifts and anthropogenic disturbance can have major impacts on biogeochemical cycling and soils. Much of the Great Basin, U.S. is currently dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate (Rydb.) Boivin) ecosystems. Sagebrush ecosystems are increasingly influenced by pinyon (Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frém and Pinus edulis Engelm.) and juniper (Juniperus osteosperma Torr. and Juniperus occidentalis Hook.) expansion. Some scientists and policy makers believe that increasing woodland cover in the intermountain western U.S. offers the possibility of increased organic carbon (OC) storage on the landscape; however, little is currently known about the distribution of OC on these landscapes, or the role that nitrogen (N) plays in OC retention. We quantified the relationship between tree cover, belowground OC, and total below ground N in expansion woodlands at 13 sites in Utah, Oregon, Idaho, California, and Nevada, USA. One hundred and twenty nine soil cores were taken using a mechanically driven diamond tipped core drill to a depth of 90 cm. Soil, coarse fragments, and coarse roots were analyzed for OC and total N. Woodland expansion influenced the vertical distribution of root OC by increasing 15-30 cm root OC by 2.6 Mg ha⁻¹ and root N by 0.04 Mg ha⁻¹. Root OC and N increased through the entire profile by 3.8 and 0.06 Mg ha⁻¹ respectively. Woodland expansion influenced the vertical distribution of soil OC by increasing surface soil (0-15 cm) OC by 2.2 Mg ha⁻¹. Woodland expansion also caused a 1.3 Mg ha⁻¹ decrease in coarse fragment associated OC from 75-90 cm. Our data suggests that woodland expansion into sagebrush ecosystems has limited potential to store additional belowground OC, and must be weighed against the risk of increased wildfire and exotic grass invasion.     

科尔沁沙地两种典型灌木独生和混交的根系分布规律

对比研究了科尔沁沙地黄柳、差不嘎蒿这两种典型灌木在独生和混交情况下的根系分布和根量变化。结果表明,独生情况下,黄柳根量要显著的高于差不嘎蒿。在整个剖面,黄柳总根量为30.84 kg.m-3,是差不嘎蒿的5.47倍。差不嘎蒿根系主要分布在0—20 cm的表层,黄柳根系主要分布在20—50 cm的深层土壤中。混交条件下,黄柳总根量为9.94 kg.m-3,相比于独生根量明显减少,差不嘎蒿为5.45 kg.m-3,并没有多大变化,但在距冠丛50 cm、100 cm处根量要大于独生(P<0.05),尤其是细根生物量有了显著增加。同独生相比,黄柳根系在深层和水平方向上扩展,但其总根、粗根、细根生物量均未有显著增加(P>0.05);差不嘎蒿的根系由主要在表层分布变化为在各层均匀分布。混交条件下两种植物之间的竞争是导致根系发生上述变化的原因之一。