塔巴庙低渗致密砂岩渗透率有效应力定律实验研究

为了从实验角度探索低渗砂岩是否存在很小的ESCK值及重新认识低渗砂岩ESCK的变化规律,用两种修正的析因设计方案开展了塔巴庙低渗致密砂岩渗透率有效应力定律实验研究.一种方案包含了3个循环,每个循环是在孔隙流体压力不变,通过加载和卸载围压完成的;另一种方案包含4个循环,每个循环是在围压不变,通过降低和增加孔隙流体压力完成的.采用稳态法采集每个测点的渗透率值,并选择合适的经验模型拟合实验数据.为了使模型更好地拟合实验数据,本文采用最大似然函数法确定的转换系数转换实验得到的渗透率数据,使拟合得到的经验模型计算的渗透率值与实验值偏差的联合概率密度趋于极大值且残余平方和最小.拟合得到的经验模型可以用渗透率-围压-内压响应面直观地表示,再用Bernabe的ESCK计算式将这一响应面转换成渗透率有效应力系数ESCK-围压-内压响应面.ESCK响应面的响应特征表明,ESCK随围压和孔隙流体压力的变化而变化,随围压的增加而降低,随内压的增加而增加,反之亦然;实验研究还表明,ESCK的变化范围在0.0~1.02之间,这一变化范围和以往实验的结果存在巨大的差异,为此,文中分析了产生这一差异原因,同时提出一新的机理模型解释了实验获取的ESCK的变化规律是低渗岩石中微裂缝和孔隙变形共同作用的结果.     

饱和水致密砂岩电学参数对有效应力变化的响应

致密砂岩气藏在开采时因地层能量衰竭导致有效应力增加,储层物性相应地发生变化,其电学参数也随之改变.以往在常规围压下进行的岩电实验,其结果包含了岩样微裂缝等因素对电阻率的贡献,获取的电学参数不能客观反映原地储层性质.本文以鄂尔多斯盆地上古生界二叠系典型致密砂岩气藏为研究对象,测定了不同有效应力下完全饱和地层水71块致密砂岩样品的电学参数.结果表明,岩样电阻率随有效应力增加而变大,且与常规砂岩相比,致密砂岩电学性质受有效应力影响更大;随有效应力增加,岩性系数a增大,地层胶结指数m减小,原地有效应力(25.86MPa)下a和m分别是常压(3.5MPa)下的2.7和0.7倍;高有效应力状态下,电阻率达到稳定值所需测试时间更长;电阻变化幅度直观表征了其骨架结构变形程度,也是致密砂岩应力敏感时间效应的直接体现.因此,应根据储层原地有效应力确定致密砂岩气藏的电学参数.     

低渗砂岩储层渗透率各向异性规律的实验研究

应用1摩尔/升的盐水作为孔隙介质,采用液体压力脉冲法对采自鄂尔多斯盆地某油田三叠系延长组低渗砂岩样品进行了渗透率随有效应力的变化规律实验研究.在围压0～100MPa,孔隙压力0～12MPa范围内,样品的渗透率变化范围在0～60×10-18 m2之间,实验结果表明样品的渗透率随有效应力的增加而减少.通过拟合实验结果,得到渗透率随有效应力的变化规律较好的符合幂函数关系,相关系数介于0.903～0.984之间.同时对同一样品的X,Y,Z相互垂直三个方向的渗透率随有效应力的变化进行了比较,结果表明渗透率的各向异性同样是压力的函数,且随着有效应力的增加,不同平面内的渗透率各向异性表现出了不同的变化规律.但在实验压力范围内,渗透率各向异性皆为正值,表明在有效应力为100MPa范围内孔隙内流体的流动方向未发生改变.研究结果为鄂尔多斯盆地低渗(超低渗)油气田开发,特别是对深部油气田开发过程中开发方式的选择与设计,充分利用渗透率各向异性的特点,提高采收率提供了新的岩石物性资料.     

有效应力对岩石弹性波速的影响

在围压和孔隙压力作用下,对饱和癸烷砂岩弹性波速随有效应力的变化进行了测试,分析了有效应力对岩石波速影响的基本规律,确定了描述波速随有效应力变化数学模型的基本形式,利用Han和Freund的测试数据,进行了有效应力对波速影响的多元非线性回归分析,得出了干燥和饱和水砂岩的波速模型.对波速随有效应力增大的机理、回归参数的物理意义以及岩石波速应力敏感性的影响因素进行了分析,并讨论了回归模型在孔隙度、孔隙压力、地应力和微裂隙反演中的应用.     

不同围压和流体饱和状态下致密砂岩弹性各向异性特征

为研究致密砂岩声波速度及其各向异性随围压的变化规律以及不同流体饱和状态下的弹性各向异性特征,钻取了不同方向的岩心并在实验室超声波频率下对致密砂岩的声学特性进行了测量,分别给出干燥和饱和水状态下,不同方向样品纵横波速度、刚性系数以及各向异性系数随围压的变化规律,并对实验结果进行了分析讨论.实验结果表明致密砂岩纵横波速度、纵横波速度比以及刚性系数均随围压增加而增加,但其在不同饱和状态下的变化率却截然不同;纵横波速度比、各向异性系数在饱和水状态下变化规律不明显,表明孔隙流体的存在对于岩石物理性质有着非常重要的影响.这方面的实验工作不但对于考察不同流体性质对致密岩石弹性各向异性影响是必要的,而且有助于致密砂岩油水和气层的识别.     

静水条件下砂岩渗透性的试验研究

在TRIAXIAL CELL V3岩石三轴伺服试验机上进行了砂岩的渗透试验,采用流量法测量不同围压和渗透压作用下的砂岩渗透率,揭示了围压和渗透压对砂岩渗透率的影响规律,并给出了围压与渗透率的拟合关系式。结果表明,在相同围压下,随着渗透压差的增加,砂岩渗透率呈不同程度的增加;围压越小,渗透压差对渗透率的影响越大;当渗透压差相同时,砂岩围压一渗透率曲线变化趋势基本一致,渗透率随围压的增加而减小,显示砂岩内部裂隙的闭合程度受围压的影响较明显。     

孔隙岩样动电特性的实验研究

本文针对流体饱和孔隙介质的动电效应,在实验室内进行了小岩样的动电实验(流动电势实验)测量,获得了10块岩样在6种不同饱和浓度下的流动电势系数,进而分析了饱和溶液浓度、岩样渗透率和泥质含量对流动电势系数的影响,探讨了流动电势系数对上述参数的敏感性,并进一步给出了流动电势系数随这些参数的变化规律.实验结果表明:前人流动电势系数频响曲线中的凹点现象是由实验装置的共振引起,并非岩样动电效应的自身特性.实验还发现:孔隙介质的动电耦合能力与溶液浓度有关,流动电势系数随溶液浓度增大而减小,但在很高浓度溶液中,动电现象依然存在,流动电势系数趋于常数.此外,流动电势系数对地层参数(渗透率和泥质含量)的敏感性受溶液浓度影响较大,随着溶液浓度增大,敏感性降低.因此,可在低浓度饱和情况下(低于0.4mol/L),利用流动电势系数的幅度对地层渗透率进行直接评价.本文结果对动电测井的可行性及应用条件给出了实验说明.     

油水饱和泥质砂岩流动电位的频散特性

油水饱和泥质砂岩中流动电位的研究对于揭示含油储层震电勘探和动电测井的机理有着重要的意义.本文首先从岩石孔隙的微观结构出发,构造了描述水润湿条件下油水饱和泥质砂岩储层的毛管模型.在模型中依据油水流动遵守的Navier-Stokes方程和电化学传质动力学理论,建立了描述油水饱和泥质砂岩流动电位的数学方程,并数学模拟了岩石储渗参数对流动电位频散特性的影响规律.研究结果表明:储层孔隙内流体受到的粘滞力与惯性力控制着水相和油相的流动,从而决定了流动电位的频散特性.随着孔隙度的增大,油水两相各自的有效渗透率均增大;而含水饱和度的升高使得水相有效渗透率增大,油相有效渗透率减小.在水润湿条件下,流动电位耦合系数随含水饱和度升高而增大,随束缚水饱和度的升高而减小.另外,流动电位相对耦合系数也随含水饱和度的升高而增大,但无频散现象.     

汶川地震断层岩气体和液体渗透率实验研究

以N2和水为孔隙流体在20-180 MPa围压范围内详细测量了汶川地震断裂带断层岩的渗透率,并同时测量了作为参照的砂岩的渗透率.实验结果表明,气体和液体渗透率均随围压增加而幂次衰减.在相同围压和孔隙压条件下,N2渗透率高于水渗透率接近1个数量级.将Klinkenberg效应校正后的气体渗透率（绝对渗透率）与水渗透率进行了比较.对比结果显示,砂岩的绝对渗透率与水渗透率基本一致;但断层岩绝对渗透率显著高于水渗透率,表明断层岩气体渗透率与水渗透率之差别不能完全由Klinkenberg效应解释.对实验数据的拟合分析表明,滑脱因子b值与绝对渗透率kl存在幂律关系（b=λkld）.断层岩符合b=0.2×10–3kl–0.557关系（R2=0.998）,显示绝对渗透率在10^–16-10^–20 m2范围内,控制断层岩渗透率的因素是一致的.另一方面,断层岩的d值明显小于砂岩的d值,暗示二者的滑脱效应存在差异.分析表明,断层岩中的粘土矿物颗粒表面吸附水及粘土矿物吸水膨胀导致有效孔隙尺寸减小是造成断层岩渗透率显著低于绝对渗透率的主要原因.研究结果显示,对于富含粘土矿物的断层岩,经Klinkenberg校正后的气体渗透率与水渗透率并不一致,因此采用相应的液体作为测量介质才能够更为准确和真实地揭示地下流体的渗流状况.     

致密砂岩电学参数的非阿尔奇现象

致密砂岩孔喉细小,孔隙结构和孔隙表面性质复杂.深入理解电学参数变化规律对认识储层孔隙结构和含油气饱和度具有重要意义.本文选取鄂尔多斯盆地上古生界二叠系某致密砂岩气藏18块岩样,采用自吸増水法建立含水饱和度,测定岩样原地有效应力25 MPa下的电学参数,并采用压汞实验分析了岩样孔隙结构.原地有效应力下,致密砂岩的岩性系数a大于1、b小于1,胶结指数m、饱和度指数n均小于2,反映出致密砂岩的次生孔隙类型和片状孔喉特征;渗透率增加,岩性系数b缓慢增加,饱和度指数n主要介于1.0~1.5之间;在对数坐标系中,低含水饱和度阶段,部分岩石电阻率增大系数与含水饱和度的关系线发生弯曲,出现非阿尔奇现象;高含水饱和度阶段,随含水饱和度增加,部分岩石电阻率增大系数与含水饱和度RI-Sw关系线出现饱和度指数降低的非阿尔奇现象.低含水饱和度阶段,岩石孔隙表面的水润湿性是RI-Sw曲线向下弯曲的主要原因;孔喉连通性差、非均质性强的部分水湿岩石的RI-Sw曲线可能向上弯曲;致密砂岩的进汞中值压力高,孔喉非均匀性强,水在岩石中不均匀地分布,含水饱和度大于(70%~90%)后,RI-Sw曲线出现平缓折线,该阶段的n值远小于2.     

非线性有效压力计算

根据Robin关于有效压力的定义,结合Bernabé推测的孔隙压p_p和围压p_c图中的渗透率等值线变化形态,提出了一种新的非线性渗透率有效压力计算方法.用新方法和Bernabé切线有效压力计算方法对以往和本次实验的12块低渗岩芯的实验数据进行了处理分析,结果表明新方法和Bernabé方法计算得到的有效压力在p_p和p_c图中的渗透率等值线为直线时才相等.当等值线为曲线时,二者计算得到的有效压力不一样.新方法计算出的测试点的有效压力与渗透率的关系表现出更好的一一对应关系.为了进一步验证文章计算有效压力方法的有效性,用指数和乘幂两种函数分别拟合二种有效压力计算方法得到的有效压力与渗透率之间的关系.拟合结果表明,新方法得到的有效压力与渗透率的拟合效果优于用Bernabé方法计算得到的有效压力与渗透率拟合效果.     

The Effect of Varying Damage History in Crystalline Rocks on the P- and S-Wave Velocity under Hydrostatic Confining Pressure

Cracks play a very important role in many geotechnical issues and in a number of processes in the Earth’s crust. Elastic waves can be used as a remote sensing tool for determining crack density. The effect of varying crack density in crystalline rock on the P- and S-wave velocity and dynamic elastic properties under confining pressure has been quantified. The evolution of P- and S-wave velocity were monitored as a suite of dry Westerly granite samples were taken to 60, 70, 80 and 90 % of the unconfined uniaxial strength of the sample. The damaged samples were then subjected to hydrostatic confining pressure from 2 MPa to 200 MPa to quantify the effect of varying crack density on the P- and S-wave velocity and elastic properties under confining pressure. The opening and propagation of microcracks predominantly parallel to the loading direction during uniaxial loading caused a 0.5 and 6.3 % decrease in the P- and S-wave velocity, respectively. During hydrostatic loading, microcracks are closed at 130 MPa confining pressure. At lower pressures the amount of crack damage in the samples has a small but measureable effect. We observed a systematic 6 and 4 % reduction in P- and S-wave velocity, respectively, due to an increase in the fracture density at 2 MPa confining pressure. The overall reduction in the P- and S-wave velocity decreased to 2 and 1 %, respectively, at 50 MPa. The elastic wave velocities of samples that have a greater amount of microcrack damage are more sensitive to pressure. Effective medium modelling was used to invert elastic wave velocities and infer crack density evolution. Comparing the crack density results with experimental data on Westerly granite samples shows that the effective medium modelling used gave interpretable and reasonable results. Changes in crack density can be interpreted as closure or opening of cracks and crack growth.     

高温高压下红河断裂带断层泥力学性质的研究

断层泥在室温高压下的应力-应变曲线呈非线性、线性等阶段性变形,在高温高压下则呈非线性变形,两者均表现出渐进破坏。含水量、矿物成分和温压条件对变形特征和破坏强度有重要影响。曲线的初始弹性模量小于有效弹性模量。断层泥在温度T≥400℃和σ_3≥300MPa时发生岩化,据此岩化温压条件可估计出未岩化断层泥存在深度将不超过10—15km。由于断层泥具渐进破坏特征,故在高温高压条件下断层泥有利于断层活动呈现稳滑     

Shear-enhanced compaction during non-linear viscous creep of porous calcite-quartz aggregates

In this paper, we extend the previous studies of semi-brittle flow of synthetic calcite-quartz aggregates to a range of temperatures and effective pressures where viscous creep occurs. Triaxial deformation experiments were performed on hot-pressed calcite-quartz aggregates containing 10, 20 and 30 wt% quartz at confining pressure of 300 MPa, pore pressures of 50-290 MPa, temperatures of 673-1073 K and strain rates of 3.0×10⁻⁵/s, 8.3×10⁻⁵/s and 3.0×10⁻⁴/s. Starting porosity varied from 5 to 9%. We made axial and volumetric strain measurements during the mechanical tests. Pore volume change was measured by monitoring the volume of pore fluid that flows out of or into the specimen at constant pore pressure. Yield stress increased with decreasing porosity and showed a dependence on effective pressure. Thus, the yield stress versus effective pressure can be described as a yield surface with negative slope that expands with decreasing porosity and increasing strain hardening, gradually approaching the envelope of strength at 10% strain, which has a positive slope. Creep of porous rock can be modeled to first order as an isolated equivalent void in an incompressible nonlinear viscous matrix. An incremental method is used to calculate the stress-strain curve of the porous material under a constant external strain rate. The numerical simulations reproduce general trends of the deformation behavior of the porous rock, such as the yield stress decreasing with increasing effective pressure and significant strain hardening at high effective pressure. The drop of yield stress with increasing porosity is modeled well, and so is the volumetric strain rate, which increases with increasing porosity.     

Experimental studies on gas and water permeability of fault rocks from the rupture of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The permeabilities of fault rocks from the rupture of Wenchuan earthquake were measured by using nitrogen gas and distilled water as pore fluids under the confining pressure ranging from 20 to 180 MPa at room temperature. Experimental results indicate that both gas and water permeabilities decrease with increasing confining pressure, described by power law relationship, i.e., b = 0.2×10–3kl–0.557. The water permeability is about one order less than gas permeability and also half order smaller than the permeability corrected by the Klinkenberg effect, so-called intrinsic permeability. The differences in the permeabilies imply that the reduction of effective pore size caused by the adhesion of water molecules to clay particle surface and water-swelling of expandable clay minerals contributes to lessening the water permeability besides the Klinkenberg effect. Hence, the liquid permeability of fault rocks cannot be deduced by gas permeability by the Klinkenberg correction reliably and accurately, and it is necessary to use liquid as pore media to measure their transport property directly.     

FRICTIONAL SLIDING OF PLAGIOCLASE GOUGE UNDER LOWER-CRUST TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVELY LOW EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS

The discovery of tremors on the lower crust portion of the San Andreas Fault has attracted more attention on the mechanical properties of the lower crust in recent years, and some experimental studies have been carried out to understand the mechanical behavior. Previous experiments under effective normal stresses of 200MPa have shown that pyroxene and plagioclase mineral separated from the gabbro and their mixtures all show velocity weakening in the lower-crust temperature range, which results in unstable slip when frictional sliding is the dominant deformation mechanism. This work is to examine whether the velocity-weakening behavior of plagioclase gouge also applies to relatively lower effective normal stress. Our experiments were performed under effective normal stress of about 100MPa, with a constant confining pressure control, with pore pressure of 30MPa and temperature of 100℃ to 600℃. We found that the frictional sliding of plagioclase are basically the same with the previous results obtained under effective normal stress of 200MPa, both of which show velocity weakening over the entire temperature range. The only difference is the out-of-trend drop of constitutive parameter a at 600℃ for the lower effective normal stress of 100MPa. It is thus concluded that reducing the effective normal stress has little effect on the sliding stability of plagioclase, and the previous conclusion made for mechanical behavior of the lower crust that unstable slips are possible therein also applies to the lower effective normal stress of 100MPa.     

Effects of pore fluid pressure on the seismic response of a fractured carbonate reservoir

An effective medium model for the stress-dependent seismic properties of fractured reservoirs is developed here on the basis of a combination of a general theory of viscoelastic waves in rock-like composites with recently published formulae for deformation of communicating and interacting cavities (interconnected pores/cracks and fractures at finite concentration) under drained loading. The inclusion-based model operates with spheroidal cavities at two different length scales; namely, the microscopic scale of the pores and (grain-boundary) cracks, and the mesoscopic scale of the fractures (controlling the flow of fluid). The different cavity types can in principle have any orientation and aspect ratio, but the microscopic pores/cracks and mesoscopic fractures were here assumed to be randomly and vertically oriented, respectively. By using three different aspect ratios for the relatively round pores (representing the stiff part of the pore space) and a distribution of aspect ratios for the relatively flat cracks (representing the compliant part of the pore space), we obtained a good fit between theoretical predictions and ultrasonic laboratory measurements on an unfractured rock sample under dry conditions. By using a single aspect ratio for the mesoscopic fractures, we arrived at a higher-order microstructural model of fractured porous media which represents a generalization of the first-order model developed by Chapman et al. (2002,2003). The effect of cavity size was here modelled under the assumption that the characteristic time for wave-induced (squirt) flow at the scale of a particular cavity (pore/crack vs. fracture) is proportional with the relevant scale-size. In the modelling, we investigate the effect of a decreasing pore pressure with constant confining pressure (fixed depth), and hence, increasing effective pressure. The analysis shows that the attenuation-peak due to the mesoscopic fractures in the reservoir will move downward in frequency as the effective pressure increases. In the range of seismic frequencies, our modelling indicates that the P-wave velocities may change by more than 20% perpendicular to the fractures and close to 10% parallel to the fractures. In comparison, the vertical S-wave velocities change by only about 5% for both polarization directions (perpendicular and parallel to the fractures) when the effective pressure increases from 0 to 15 MPa. This change is mainly due to the overall change in porosity with pressure. The weak pressure dependence is a consequence of the fact that the S waves will only sense if the fractures are open or not, and since all the fractures have the same aspect ratio, they will close at the same effective pressure (which is outside the analysed interval). Approximate reflection coefficients were computed for a model consisting of the fractured reservoir embedded as a layer in an isotropic shale and analysed with respect to variations in Amplitude Versus Offset and aZimuth (AVOZ) properties at seismic frequencies for increasing effective pressure. For the P-P reflections at the top of the reservoir, it is found that there is a significant dependence on effective pressure, but that the variations with azimuth and offset are small. The lack of azimuthal dependence may be explained from the approximate reflection coefficient formula as a result of cancellation of terms related to the S-wave velocity and the Thomson’s anisotropy parameter δ. For the P-S reflection, the azimuthal dependence is larger, but the pressure dependence is weaker (due to a single aspect ratio for the fractures). Finally, using the effective stiffness tensor for the fractured reservoir model with a visco-elastic finite-difference code, synthetic seismograms and hodograms were computed. From the seismograms, attenuation changes in the P wave reflected at the bottom of the reservoir can be observed as the effective pressure increases. S waves are not much affected by the fractures with respect to attenuation, but azimuthal dependence is stronger than for P waves, and S-wave splitting in the bottom reservoir P-S reflection is clearly seen both in the seismograms and hodograms. From the hodograms, some variation in the P-S reflection with effective pressure can also be observed.