Another Simple Method of Spectral Correction to Obtain Robust Eddy-Covariance Results

The eddy-covariance method is the state-of-the-art tool to measure mass and energy fluxes, though many measuring systems (particularly closed-path systems) show strong spectral attenuation that causes significant underestimates of actual mass fluxes. The standard way to correct these underestimates is to use theoretically derived transfer functions. Practical implementation has shown that the attenuation, especially of closed-path systems, is underestimated by this method, even when the additional tube damping is considered. This paper introduces and tests three alternative site-specific and hardware specific correction methods based on spectral analysis, which typically enhance—additionally to the classical correction—the calculated mass fluxes based on closed-path analysers, as their inevitable tubing and the filters used cause additional flow attenuation. Two of the three methods are based on a site-specific and hardware specific transfer functions, the third uses direct comparison of cospectra. Primarily the methods based on transfer functions proved to be easy-to-handle once established for the specific set-up and measurement site. They represent practical and robust methods to correct for spectral attenuation.     

Tilt corrections over complex terrain and their implication for CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> transport

Observational data from sonic anemometers are commonly rotated from sonic to streamline coordinates, a procedure that is called tilt correction. Tilt corrections are often used to post-process air velocity data collected from sonic anemometers to allow objective interpretation of air flow data relative to the Earth. Since streamline coordinates depend on dynamical characteristics of the flow, the tilt correction depends not only on temporal and spatial variations of the flow, but also on local circulations. We found that ensemble- averaged slope flows are approximately parallel to the terrain slope close to the ground within the canopy layer, but not above, due to the influence of the diurnal variation of local vertical circulations. As a result, the diurnal variation of the observed vertical velocity in streamline coordinates at 21.5 m above the ground over 11-m tall forest canopies can be opposite to that calculated from the continuity equation. To estimate CO₂ transport over sloping terrain, a workable reference coordinate system is needed such that multiple sonic anemometers have a common reference relative to the Earth. Streamline coordinate systems can be the choice of the common reference coordinate system only if flow, at least ensemble-averaged flow, is parallel to terrain slopes. The choice of the reference coordinate system and its implication in investigation of CO₂ transport are discussed. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

New Transfer Functions for Correcting Turbulent Water Vapour Fluxes

We address the problem of the high-frequency correction of water vapour fluxes measured by eddy covariance with a closed-path infrared gas analyser (IRGA). Different transfer functions are compared and evaluated at a forested (Vielsalm, Belgium) and an agricultural (Lonzée, Belgium) site. Classical functions, usually applied to correct CO₂ fluxes (Gaussian, Lorentzian), are found to be unsuited to water vapour cospectral corrections, being characterised by too sharp a decrease at high frequency. Two other functions characterised by a lower decreasing slope are found to better fit experimental transfer functions. They were calibrated and validated on experimental transfer functions and their dependency on air humidity is parameterised. On this basis, new correction coefficients are estimated. The coefficients are found to be larger than those based on the classical functions, even when the dependency of the latter on air humidity is taken into account. The difference amounts to 10% at the forested site and to 5% larger at the crop site. The study highlights the necessity of characterising the water transfer function shape and taking it into account in the correction factor at each site equipped with a closed path IRGA.     

The Scaling Behaviour of a Turbulent Kinetic Energy Closure Model for Stably Stratified Conditions

We investigate the scaling behaviour of a turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) closure model for stably stratified conditions. The mixing length scale for stable stratification is proportional to the ratio of the square root of the TKE and the local Brunt–Väisälä frequency, which is a commonly applied formulation. We analyze the scaling behaviour of our model in terms of traditional Monin–Obukov Similarity Theory and local scaling. From the model equations, we derive expressions for the stable limit behaviour of the flux–gradient relations and other scaling quantities. It turns out that the scaling behaviour depends on only a few model parameters and that the results obey local scaling theory. The analytical findings are illustrated with model simulations for the second GABLS intercomparison study. We also investigate solutions for the case in which an empirical correction function is used to express the eddy diffusivity for momentum as a function of the Richardson number (i.e. an increasing turbulent Prandtl number with stability). In this case, it seems that for certain parameter combinations the model cannot generate a steady-state solution. At the same time, its scaling behaviour becomes unrealistic. This shows that the inclusion of empirical correction functions may have large and undesired consequences for the model behaviour.     

Products and Mechanism of the NO<Subscript>3</Subscript> Reaction with Thiophene

Products of the gas-phase reaction of the NO₃ radical with thiophene have been investigated using different experimental systems. On the one hand, experiments have been conducted in our laboratory using two different methods, a Teflon static reactor coupled to a gas chromatograph combined with mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) and a discharge flow tube with direct MS spectroscopic detection. A qualitative analysis in these cases indicates that possible products for the reaction of thiophene+NO₃ at room temperature include: sulphur dioxide, acetic and formic acids, a short-chain aldehyde, 2-nitrothiophene and 3-nitrothiophene. On the other hand, quantitative experiments have been performed in the European Photoreactor (EUPHORE) in Valencia, Spain. In this case, the major products were: HNO₃ (≈80%), nitrothiophenes (≈30%), SO₂ (≈20%), propanal (3%) and a fraction of particles (≈10%). The results obtained indicate that at least 70% of the reaction of NO₃ with thiophene proceeds by an H-abstraction process at room temperature. The mechanism of the reaction studied is proposed on the basis of experimental results.     

The growth of the mixed layer in a stratified fluid due to penetrative convection

This paper describes a theoretical and experimental study of penetrative convection within an initially thermally stably stratified fluid heated from below. Emphasis is placed on the experimental investigation of the growth of the mixed layer and the entrainment at its boundary. Both processes play an important role in density-induced geophysical phenomena such as the lifting of an inversion layer during the morning and the deepening of a thermocline in a lake during the fall.Many laboratory experiments with water as the experimental fluid were performed, in which the convection process was generated and visualised. The height of the mixed layer, heat transfer across the bottom interface and temperature profiles were measured as functions of time.Theoretically-based analytical equations are given, which predict the thickness and temperature of the mixed layer. The equations involve one empirical factor characterising the entrainment rate at the interface between the mixed and the upper stable layer.The experimental results confirm the theoretical equations and show that the empirical factor is a constant. From this, an entrainment rate is calculated which agrees well with values presented in the meteorological literature.Work performed at Sonderforschungsbereich 80, University of Karlsruhe.     

东亚夏季风的低频振荡及其与500hPa角动量输送变化的关系

本文用谱分析和经验正交函数分析了1986年夏季风时期亚洲高空越赤道气流和低空赤道西风的低频振荡特征。高低空两支季风气流的30—50天滤波序列的主要经验正交函数能较好地反映亚洲夏季风低频振荡的空间特征。根据EOF1时间序列的振荡位相可以确定东亚夏季风活跃/中断的具体时间。后延相关揭示出北半球500hPa中低纬角动量输送的经向交换同东亚夏季风的低频活动有密切关系。      

Statistical downscaling for daily precipitation in Korea using combined PRISM,RCM, and quantile mapping: Part 1, methodology and evaluation in historical simulation

In this study, we present the Parameter-elevation Relationships on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM)-based Dynamic downscaling Error correction (PRIDE) model, which is suitable for complex topographies, such as the Korean peninsula. The PRIDE model is constructed by combining the PRISM module, the Regional Climate Model (RCM) anomaly, and quantile mapping (QM) to produce high-resolution (1 km) grid data at a daily time scale. The results show that the systematic bias of the RCM was significantly reduced by simply substituting the climatological observational seasonal cycle at a daily timescale for each grid point obtained from the PRISM. QM was then applied to correct additional systematic bias by constructing the transfer functions under the cumulative density function framework between the model and observation using six types of transfer functions. K-fold cross-validation of the PRIDE model shows that the number of modeled precipitation days is approximately 90~121% of the number of observed precipitation days for the five daily precipitation classes, indicating that the PRIDE model reasonably estimates the observational frequency of daily precipitation under a quantile framework. The relative Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is also discussed in the framework of the intensity of daily precipitation.     

冬小麦生长模式及其在干旱影响评估中的应用

在前人理论研究和田间试验的基础上,考虑水分胁迫影响的后效性及作物不同发育阶段对水分胁迫的敏感性,研制出实际水分条件下的冬小麦生长模拟模式。经与不同水分处理的实测资料对比,模拟效果基本令人满意,平均误差为10%左右。利用生长模式得到实际水分条件下的干物重减少率,进行了干旱影响实时评估的尝试。并分别在返青后、拔节后和成熟前展望了干旱对最终生物量的可能影响。     

雷击大地密度Ng数值研究

雷击大地密度Ng作为一个重要的气象参数,直接影响雷电灾害风险评估的科学计算。Ng数值的获取有两种方式:一种是由地闪定位网络系统提供,一种是按Ng≈0.1T_d(年均雷暴日)估算。在利用后一种方法获取Ng值时,简单地取0.1T_d并非科学。因为T_d是较大区域范围的平均值,未必是雷电灾害风险评估项目所处区域的真实值;况且Ng值不仅受T_d的影响,还与雷暴时间、雷暴路径、闪电特征、雷灾频次与强度有关。因此,利用后一种方法获取Ng值时,需计入其他气象因素的影响。基于对影响Ng的各种气象因素的分析,将焦作市按行政区划定为65个区域,根据各个区域的气象环境,分析出各个区域的雷电灾害风险等级;根据风险等级,设定风险系数,并结合周边区域气象因素对该区域的影响,计算出Ng的修正系数,修正Ng的取值,使修正后的Ng值更接近真实值。     

PARSIVEL2对降雪测量的订正方法及误差计算

为了获得更加准确的冬季降水数据,针对PARSIVEL2（Particle Size and Velocity）测量降雪时近地面水平风的影响进行了订正及误差计算。订正结果表明:一定风速下,不考虑风的影响会造成小粒子直径的明显低估,而对于同一粒径段的粒子,风速越大,计算过程中对于粒子直径的低估越明显。风速不超过2 m s?1时,其降雪粒子下落末速度计算误差在3%左右,直径计算误差在7%以内（水平偏转角度45°）。在对2018年1月4日南京一次降雪过程中获取的真实雪花谱的分析中可以看出,忽略风的影响会导致雪花谱峰值的偏移和谱的缩窄,这会造成小粒子数浓度的高估和大粒子数浓度的低估,进而影响微物理量的计算。具体表现在雷达反射率因子Z和降雪强度I的低估,及Z–I关系拟合系数a值的实际数值会大于计算值,b值则偏小。但当风速较大时,近地面流场比较复杂,垂直向湍流运动不可忽略,此种订正方法很可能不再适用。建议在以后的业务观测中增设防风圈或在后续的数据处理中增加针对风的订正,以排除风对降雪测量的影响。     

Reductions of PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript> in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomerations during the 2008 Olympic Games

The Atmospheric Environmental Monitoring Network successfully undertook the task of monitoring the atmospheric quality of Beijing and its surrounding area during the 2008 Olympics.The results of this monitoring show that high concentrations of PM2.5 pollution exhibited a regional pattern during the monitoring period(1 June-30 October 2008).The PM2.5 mass concentrations were 53 μg m 3,66 μg m 3,and 82 μg m 3 at the background site,in Beijing,and in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomerations,respectively.The PM2.5 levels were lowest during the 2008 Olympic Games(8-24 August):35 μg m 3 at the background site,42 μg m 3 in Beijing and 57 μg m 3 in the region.These levels represent decreases of 49%,48%,and 56%,respectively,compared to the prophase mean concentration before the Olympic Games.Emission control measures contributed 62%-82% of the declines observed in Beijing,and meteorological conditions represented 18%-38%.The concentration of fine particles met the goals set for a "Green Olympics."     

Multi-Phase Chemistry of C<Subscript>2</Subscript> and C<Subscript>3</Subscript> Organic Compounds in the Marine Atmosphere

A box model is used to explore the detailed chemistry of C₂ and C₃ organic compounds in the marine troposphere by tracing the individual reaction paths resulting from the oxidation of ethane, ethene, acetylene, propane, propene and acetic acid. The mechanisms include chemical reactions in the gas phase and in the aqueous phase of clouds and aerosol particles at cloud level under conditions resembling those in the northern hemisphere. Organic hydroperoxides are found to be important intermediate products, with subsequent reactions leading partly to the formation of mixed hydroxy or carbonyl hydroperoxides that are readily absorbed into cloud water, where they contribute significantly to the formation of multifunctional organic compounds and organic acids. Organic hydroperoxides add little to the oxidation of sulfur dioxide dissolved in the aqueous phase, which is dominated by H₂O₂. Next to acetaldehyde and acetone, glycol aldehyde, glyoxal, methyl glyoxal and hydroxy propanone are prominent oxidation products in the gas and the aqueous phase. Acetaldehyde is not efficiently converted to acetic acid in clouds; the major local sources of acetic acid are gas-phase reactions. Other acids produced include hydroperoxy acetic, glycolic, glyoxylic, oxalic, pyruvic, and lactic acid. The mechanism of Schuchmann et al. (1985), which derives glycolic and glyoxylic acid from the oxidation of acetate, is found unimportant in the marine atmosphere. The principal precursors of glyoxylic acid are glyoxal and glycolic acid. The former derives mainly from acetylene and ethene, the latter from glycolaldehyde, also an oxidation product of ethene. The oxidation of glyoxylic acid leads to oxalic acid, which accumulates and is predicted to reach steady state concentrations in the range 30–90 ng m⁻³. This is greater, yet of the same magnitude, than the concentrations observed over the remote Pacific Ocean.     

风暴尺度集合卡尔曼滤波中的采样误差订正局地化方法研究

在中尺度WRF-EnSRF系统中最新引入的采样误差订正局地化方法不仅考虑了回归系数偏差,而且计算量较小。该方法基于状态变量和对应观测值的相关系数的分布关系,根据离线蒙特卡洛技术制作的关于集合数和样本相关系数的查找表格确定局地化系数因子,进而订正由集合数选取有限造成的背景误差协方差被低估引起的采样误差。本文利用风暴过程的雷达观测资料做了一系列风暴尺度的资料同化理想试验,探讨了采样误差订正局地化方法在风暴尺度集合卡尔曼滤波同化中的技术特点和同化效果。结果表明:相比于经验局地化方法,采样误差订正局地化方法能够有效地改善集合同化的效果,对距离的敏感度更低,尤其在天气系统发展变化较快的阶段,新方法优势更大。并且,对不同观测变量以及在风暴发展的不同阶段使用不同的局地化方法,所得的结果都存在一定的差异,因此需要根据同化对象合理地选择局地化方法。     

Interpreting CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Fluxes Over a Suburban Lawn: The Influence of Traffic Emissions

Turf-grass lawns are ubiquitous in the United States. However direct measurements of land–atmosphere fluxes using the eddy-covariance method above lawn ecosystems are challenging due to the typically small dimensions of lawns and the heterogeneity of land use in an urbanised landscape. Given their typically small patch sizes, there is the potential that CO₂ fluxes measured above turf-grass lawns may be influenced by nearby CO₂ sources such as passing traffic. In this study, we report on two years of eddy-covariance flux measurements above a 1.5 ha turf-grass lawn in which we assess the contribution of nearby traffic emissions to the measured CO₂ flux. We use winter data when the vegetation was dormant to develop an empirical estimate of the traffic effect on the measured CO₂ fluxes, based on a parametrised version of a three-dimensional Lagrangian footprint model and continuous traffic count data. The CO₂ budget of the ecosystem was adjusted by 135gCm⁻² in 2007 and by 134gCm⁻² in 2008 to determine the natural flux, even though the road crossed the footprint only at its far edge. We show that bottom-up flux estimates based on CO₂ emission factors of the passing vehicles, combined with the crosswind-integrated footprint at the distance of the road, agreed very well with the empirical estimate of the traffic contribution that we derived from the eddy-covariance measurements. The approach we developed may be useful for other sites where investigators plan to make eddy-covariance measurements on small patches within heterogeneous landscapes where there are significant contrasts in flux rates. However, we caution that the modelling approach is empirical and will need to be adapted individually to each site.     

探空气球升速的误差修正研究

为确保探空气球实际升速在合理的范围内,减少探空气球升速理论值与实测值之间的误差,分析了气球升速过快或过慢对资料准确性的影响,探讨了空气密度、空气阻力系数、重力加速度、净举力、球皮及附加物重量等5个与气球升速密切相关因素的影响原理、取值范围、变化规律及影响程度,分析了气球升速理论值与实测值之间存在相对误差的原因,并以衡阳气象台高空探测资料为例,提出采用无量纲的升速修正系数对探空气球升速理论值进行修正,升速修正系数的数值体现了空气阻力、层流或湍流、氢气渗漏等暂时不能定量描述的因素对气球升速的影响程度。研究结果表明:对气球理论升速影响较大的因素是空气密度和空气阻力系数,且空气阻力系数是雷诺数的函数,很难得出定量值;传统方法计算的气球理论值与实测值的平均相对偏差达到了25.5%,主要是由于设置了恒定的空气阻力系数,致使理论升速远大于实际升速;修正后的气球升速理论值与实测值之间相对误差减小到了6.0%,因此修正后的气球升速理论值可以为高空气象探测业务中净举力的确定提供依据。     

Estimates of anthropogenic CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> uptake in a global ocean model

A global ocean general circulation model (L30T63) is employed to study the uptake and distribution of anthropogenic CO₂ in the ocean. A subgrid-scale mixing scheme called GM90 is used in the model. There are two main GM90 parameters including isopycnal diffusivity and skew (thickness) diffusivity. Sensitivities of the ocean circulation and the redistribution of dissolved anthropogenic CO₂ to these two parameters are examined. Two runs estimate the global oceanic anthropogenic CO₂ uptake to be 1.64 and 1.73 Pg C yr^-1 for the 1990s, and that the global ocean contained 86.8 and 92.7 Pg C of anthropogenic CO₂ at the end of 1994, respectively. Both the total inventory and uptake from our model are smaller than the data-based estimates. In this presentation, the vertical distributions of anthropogenic CO₂ at three meridional sections are discussed and compared with the available data-based estimates. The inventory in the individual basins is also calculated. Use of large isopycnal diffusivity can generally improve the simulated results, including the exchange flux, the vertical distribution patterns, inventory, storage, etc. In terms of comparison of the vertical distributions and column inventory, we find that the total inventory in the Pacific Ocean obtained from our model is in good agreement with the data-based estimate, but a large difference exists in the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the South Atlantic. The main reasons are weak vertical mixing and that our model generates small exchange fluxes of anthropogenic CO₂ in the Southern Ocean. Improvement in the simulation of the vertical transport and sea ice in the Southern Ocean is important in future work.     

Comparative Measurements Of Co2flux Over A Forest Using Closed-Path And Open-Path Co2analysers

An eddy covariance system using a closed-path CO₂analyser was constructed for long-term CO₂flux measurements above a forest, and its total frequency response was valuated experimentally. The amplitude and phase responses of the system wereexamined through a preliminary test, in which a prescribed pattern of CO₂fluctuation was input to the system. The result showed that the amplitude of the output from the system was attenuated as frequency increased, with a half-power frequency of 0.3 Hz. The phase was delayed by the air sampling through a long tube, but the delay in phase decreased asfrequency increased. We then presented a new technique for the correction of flux loss due to the inadequate system response for the eddy covariance measurements of CO₂ flux. Using the present system and the correction technique, diurnal variations in CO₂ flux were measured over a temperate deciduous forest on three days in 1997. The results were compared with the CO₂fluxes measured with a fast response open-path gas analyser. The CO₂fluxes from the closed-path system agreed with those from the open-path system after the Webb, Pearman and Leuning correction was made for the latter. In the present test over a forest, the contribution of the frequency-response correction to the CO₂fluxes was small and its averaged percentage was only 3%in the daytime. However, the percentage would likely increase, if the system were applied to a shorter vegetation site where high frequency components are more important. The comparison confirmed that we can obtain correct measurements of CO₂flux using the present closed-path system and the correction technique.     

Experimental study of nonlinear wave—wave interaction and white-cap dissipation of wind-generated waves

An experimental scheme was designed to obtain laboratory-scale verification of Hasselmann's nonlinear wave—wave interaction and white-cap dissipation theories. Water wave height and fluctuating air pressure were measured simultaneously in a fixed reference frame as a function of fetch in the Stanford Wind, Water-Wave Research Facility under the conditions of a steady wind and a stationary wave spectrum. All the data were obtained 5 mm above the highest point of the wind waves for five stations (3 m apart on average) and at three wind speeds (7.1, 8.0 and 8.9 m/sec). The wave height and fluctuating pressure were measured by a capacitance wave-height gauge and a crystal pressure transducer, respectively.Based on the experimental results, Hasselmann's nonlinear wave—wave interaction theory appears to be valid. Barnett's approximate parametric equation for calculating the energy transfer of nonlinear wave—wave interaction and Hasselmann's white-capping dissipation model were also verified and appeared to be applicable in the relatively low and intermediate frequency region of a wave spectrum for a normalized fetch range of 100–500. Based on the results of an overall energy balance in a gravity wind-wave spectrum, the nonlinear wave—wave interaction mechanism is shown to play a dominant role in the energy transfer processes after the wave spectrum is generated.     

椭球雨滴群旋转轴呈正态分布情况时雷达反射率因子的修正

推导出了在云降水粒子群为小旋转椭球水滴群、椭球旋转轴呈正态分布、云降水粒子谱为M-P分布情况下的雷达气象方程,并且重新定义了相应的雷达反射率因子,确定了在用雷达测定非球形雨滴降水时的订正系数。为新一代多普勒天气雷达观测资料的雨滴形状和分布特征订正、提高降水测量精度提供了理论依据和方法。