Lead isotopic composition from data of high-precession MC-ICP-MS and sources of matter in the large-scale Sukhoi Log noble metal deposit,Russia

The lead isotopic composition of 33 sulfide samples from orebodies of the Sukhoi Log deposit was studied by high-precession MC-ICP-MS with a precision of ±0.02% (±2SD from 120 analyses of the SRM 981 standard sample). The deposit is located in the Bodaibo gold mining district in the northern Baikal-Patom Highland. Gold mineralization is hosted in Neoproterosoic black slates. Variations of lead isotope ratios of the Sukhoi Log sulfides are generally typical of Phanerozoic deposits and ore fields. They are significant for ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb (17.903–18.674), moderate for ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb (37.822–38.457), and relatively narrow for ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb (15.555–15.679). In the Pb-Pb isotope diagrams, the data points of pyrite and galena constitute a linear trend. The points corresponding to pyrite from metasomatic ore occupy the left lower part of the trend. Galena from late gold-quartz veins shows more radiogenic Pb, and corresponding data points are located in the upper part of the trend. According to the Stacey-Kramers model, the end points of the trend, which is regarded as a mixing line, have μ₂ = 9.6 and μ₂ = 13.2 and model Pb-Pb ages 455 and 130 Ma, respectively. The isotope characteristics of ore lead, their relationships in pyrite and galena, and the mixing trend of Pb isotopic compositions are clearly tied to two Paleozoic stages in the formation of the Sukhoi Log deposit (447 ± 6 and 321 ± 14Ma) and testify to the leading role of crustal sources, which are suggested as being the Neoproterozoic black-shale terrigenous-carbonate rocks.     

Lead isotopes of the carbonate-hosted Kabwe, Tsumeb, and Kipushi Pb-Zn-Cu sulphide deposits in relation to Pan African orogenesis in the Damaran-Lufilian Fold Belt of Central Africa

Lead isotope ratios of galena from the carbonate-hosted massive sulphide deposits of Kabwe (Pb-Zn) and Tsumeb (Pb-Zn-Cu) in Zambia and Namibia, respectively, have been measured and found to be homogeneous and characteristic of upper crustal source rocks. Kabwe galena has average isotope ratios of ^206/204Pb = 17.997 ± 0.007, ^207/204Pb = 15.713 ± 0.010 and ^208/204Pb = 38.410 ± 0.033. Tsumeb galena has slightly higher ^206/204Pb (18.112 ± 0.035) and slightly lower ^207/204Pb (15.674 ± 0.016) and ^208/204Pb (38.276 ± 0.073) ratios than Kabwe galena. The isotopic differences are attributed to local differences in the age and composition of the respective source rocks for Kabwe and Tsumeb. The homogeneity of the ore lead in the two epigenetic deposits suggests lead sources of uniform isotopic composition or, alternatively, thorough mixing of lead derived from sources with relatively similar isotopic compositions. Both deposits have relatively high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of 10.31 and 10.09 for Kabwe and Tsumeb galenas, respectively. These isotope ratios are considered to be typical of the upper continental crust in the Damaran-Lufilian orogenic belt, as also indicated by basement rocks and Cu-Co sulphides in stratiform Katangan metasediments which have a mean μ-value of 10.25 ± 0.12 in the Copperbelt region of Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). The ²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb isotope ratios of 43.08 and 40.42 for Kabwe and Tsumeb suggest Th-enriched source regions with ²³²Th/²³⁵U (κ-values) of 4.18 and 4.01, respectively. Model isotopic ages determined for the Kabwe (680 Ma) and Tsumeb (530 Ma) deposits indicate that the timing of the mineralisation was probably related to phases of orogenic activity associated with the Pan-African Lufilian and Damaran orogenies, respectively. Galena from the carbonate-hosted Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn massive sulphide deposit in the Congo also has homogeneous lead isotope ratios, but its isotopic composition is comparable to that of the average global lead evolution curve for conformable massive sulphide deposits. The μ (9.84) and κ (3.69) values indicate a significant mantle component, and the isotopic age of the Kipushi deposit (456 Ma) suggests that the emplacement of the mineralisation was related to a post-tectonic phase of igneous activity in the Lufilian belt. The isotope ratios (^206/204Pb, ^207/204Pb, ^208/204Pb) of the three deposits are markedly different from the heterogeneous lead ratios of the Katangan Cu-Co stratiform mineralisation of the Copperbelt as well as those of the volcanogenic Nampundwe massive pyrite deposit in the Zambezi belt which typically define radiogenic linear trends on lead-lead plots. The host-rock dolomite of the Kabwe deposit also has homogeneous lead isotope ratios identical to the ore galena. This observation indicates contamination of the Kabwe Dolomite Formation with ore lead during mineralisation. Received: 8 September 1997 / Accepted: 21 August 1998     

Pb Isotopic Composition and Metal Sources of Au and Ag Deposits of the South Verkhoyansk Region (Yakutia,Russia) According to High-Precision MC-ICP-MS Data

The paper considers the results of high-precision Pb–Pb isotopic analysis of 120 galena samples from 27 Au and Ag deposits of the South Verkhoyansk Synclinorium (SVS) including large Nezhdaninsky deposit (628.8 t Au). The Pb isotopic composition is analyzed on a MC-ICP-MS NEPTUNE mass-spectrometer from solutions with an error of no more than ±0.02% (2σ). Four types of deposits are studied: (i) stratified vein gold–quartz deposits (type 1) hosted in metamorphosed Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian terrigenous rocks and formed during accretion of the Okhotsk Block to the North Asian Craton synchronously with dislocation metamorphism and related granitic magmatism; (ii) vein gold–quartz (Nezhdaninsky type) deposits also hosted in Lower Permian metasedimentary rocks; (iii) Au–Bi deposits localized at the contact zones of the Late Cretaceous granitic plutons; and (iv) Sn–Ag polymetallic deposits related to granitic and subvolcanic rocks of the Okhotsk Zone of the SVS. The deposits of types 2, 3, and 4 are postaccretionary. The general range of ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios is 18.1516–18.5903 (2.4%), 15.5175–15.6155 (0.63%), and 38.3010–39.0481 (2.0%), respectively. In ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb–²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb–²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb diagrams, the data points of Pb isotopic compositions of all deposits occupy restricted, partly overlapping areas along a general elongated trend. The various SVS Au–Ag deposits can be classified according to the Pb isotopic composition in accordance with all three Pb ratios. Deposits of the same type show distinct Pb isotopic compositions that strongly exceed the scale of analytical error (±0.02%). The differences in Pb isotopic composition within specific deposits are low and subordinate and have little effect on variations in the Pb isotopic composition of the SVS deposits. The μ₂ values (Stacey–Kramers model), which characterize the ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of ore lead sources of the SVS deposits, widely vary from 9.7 to 9.38. The ω₂ values (²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb) are 39.82–36.61, whereas the Th/U ratios are 4.04–3.86. The content of all three radiogenic Pb isotopes and μ₂ values of feldspars from SVS intrusive rocks are strongly distinct from those of galena of stratified gold–quartz and vein gold–quartz deposits and are identical to Pb of galena from Au–Bi and Sn–Ag polymetallic deposits, indicating a mostly magmatic origin for the Pb of these deposits. Detailed isotopic study of the Nezhdaninsky deposit shows different Pb isotopic composition of two consecutive mineral assemblages (gold–sulfide and Ag polymetallic): ~0.30, ~0.07, and ~0.22% for ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios, respectively. These differences are interpreted as a result of involvement of at least two metal sources during the evolution of an ore-forming system: (i) host Lower Permian terrigenous rocks and (ii) a magmatic source similar in Pb isotopic composition to that of Sn–Ag polymetallic deposits. The Pb isotopic composition and μ₂ and Th/U values show that lead of stratified gold–quartz deposits combines isotopic tracers of lower and upper crustal sources (Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian terrigenous rocks), lead of which was mobilized by ore-bearing fluids. The high ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ratios and Th/U evolutionary parameter are common to all Pb isotopic composition of all studied Au–Ag deposits and SVS Cretaceous intrusive rocks and indicate that Pb sources were depleted in U relative to Th. Taking into account the structure of the region and conceptions on its evolution, we can suggest that the magma source was related to lower crustal subducted rocks of the Archean (~2.6 Ga) North Asian Craton and the Okhotsk terrane.     

Emarat carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposit, Markazi Province, Iran: A geological, mineralogical and isotopic (S, Pb) study

The Emarat deposit, with a total proved reserve of 10 Mt ore grading 6% Zn and 2.26% Pb, is one of the largest Zn–Pb deposits in the Malayer–Esfahan belt. The mineralization is stratabound and restricted to Early Cretaceous limestones and dolomites. The ore consists mainly of sphalerite and galena with small amounts of pyrite, chalcopyrite, calcite, quartz, and dolomite. Textural evidence shows that the ore has replaced the host rocks and thus is epigenetic.Sulfur isotopes indicate that the sulfur in sphalerite and galena has been derived from Cretaceous seawater through thermochemical sulfate reduction. Sulfur isotope compositions of four apparently coprecipitated sphalerite–galena pairs suggest their precipitation was under equilibrium conditions. The sulfur isotopic fractionation observed for the sphalerite–galena pairs corresponds to formation temperatures between 77 °C and 168 °C, which agree with homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions.Lead-isotope studies indicate that the lead in galena has been derived from heterogeneous sources including orogenic and crustal reservoirs with high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb and ²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb ratios. Ages derived from the Pb-isotope model give meaningless ages, ranging from Early Carboniferous to future. It is probable that the Pb-isotope model ages that point to an earlier origin than the Early Cretaceous host rocks are derived from older reservoirs in the underlying Carboniferous or Jurassic units, either from the host rocks or from earlier-formed ore deposits within these units.This research and other available data show that the Emarat Zn–Pb deposit has many important features of Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) lead–zinc deposits and thus we argue that it is an MVT-type ore deposit.     

Differences in lead isotope composition in the stratiform McArthur zinc-lead-silver deposit

Lead isotopic composition and uranium and lead concentrations have been determined for galena, sphalerite, pyrite and acetic acid soluble material from the McArthur area in order to test the hypothesis of a dual sulphur source suggested by the sulphur isotope data of Smith and Croxford (Sulphur isotope ratios in the McArthur lead-zinc-silver deposit, Nature Phys. Sci. 245, 10–12 (1973)). Galena, sphalerite and the acetic acid washes from the McArthur deposit have uniform isotopic ratios (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 16.07–16.15; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.37–15.47; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 35.57–35.89) consistent with other conformable ore deposits, whereas the ratios for pyrite are variable and quite radiogenic (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 16.24–16.49; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.42–15.58; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 35.82–36.98). Acid washes where dolomite is a major dissolved phase are also radiogenic. The lead in the pyrite appears to have been derived from at least two sources: the less radiogenic lead coming from an exhalative source as for galena and sphalerite and the more radiogenic lead probably being leached from the country rocks. It is proposed that analysis of pyrite for isotopic composition and concentration of lead could be used as an indicator for similar types of deposits in this area.     

Lead isotope heterogeneity in sulfides from different assemblages at the Verninskoe gold deposit (Baikal-Patom Highland,Russia)

Using the high-precision technique of MC-ICP mass spectrometry, the isotope composition of lead was studied for the first time in sulfides of different mineral associations at the Verninskoe deposit that belong to large gold deposits of the Lena Province. In 23 monofractions of sulfides (pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and sphalerite), the Pb-Pb data showed a pronounced heterogeneity of the isotope composition of ore lead (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.21–18.69, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.59–15.67, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 37.98–38.63) for the deposit as a whole. This heterogeneity is also seen to a lesser degree within individual samples. In this case, a correlation takes place between the isotope composition of ore Pb and the type of mineral association: the sulfides in earlier associations are characterized by lower contents of the ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb radiogenic isotopes compared to the minerals of later parageneses. The comparison of Pb-Pb isotope characteristics of ore mineralization of the Verninskoe deposit to those of the Sukhoi Log deposit (the greatest in the Lena Province) testifies to the geochemical similarity of the sources of ore Pb involved in the formation of these deposits. The sources as such were terrigenous rocks of the Bodaibo synclinorium formed mainly as a result of the disintegration of Precambrian rocks of the Siberian craton.     

Genesis of Pb–Zn Mineralization Beneath the Xiangshan Uranium Orefield,South China: Constraints from H–O–S–Pb Isotopes and Rb–Sr Dating

The volcanic‐hosted Xiangshan uranium orefield is the largest uranium deposit in South China. Recent exploration has discovered extensive Pb–Zn mineralization beneath the uranium orebodies. Detailed geological investigation reveals that the major metallic minerals include pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, whilst the major non‐metallic minerals include quartz, sericite, and calcite. New δ¹⁸O_fluid and δD_fluid data indicate that the ore‐forming fluids were mainly derived from magmatic, and the sulfide δ³⁴S values (2.2–6.9‰) suggest a dominantly magmatic sulfur source. The Pb isotope compositions are homogeneous (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.120–18.233, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.575–15.698, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 37.047–38.446). The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of sulfide minerals range from 0.7197 to 0.7204, which is much higher than volcanic rocks and fall into the range of metamorphic basement. Lead and strontium isotopic compositions indicate that the metallogenic materials probably were derived from metamorphic basement. Pyrite Rb–Sr dating of the ores yielded 131.3 ± 4.0 Ma, indicating that the Pb–Zn mineralization occurred in the Early Cretaceous.     

Mineralization age and sources of ore‐forming material of the Nanmushu Zn‐Pb deposit in the Micangshan Tectonic Belt at the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton,China: Constraints from Rb‐Sr dating and Sr‐Pb isotopes

The Nanmushu Zn‐Pb deposit, hosted by the Neoproterozoic Dengying Formation dolostone, is located in the eastern part of the Micangshan tectonic belt at the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton, China. This study involves a systematic field investigation, detailed mineralogical study, and Rb‐Sr and Pb isotopic analyses of the deposit. The results of Rb‐Sr isotopic dating of coexisting sphalerite and galena yield an isochron age of 486.7 ± 3.1 Ma, indicating the deposit was formed during the Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician. This mineralization age is interpreted to be related to the timing of destruction of the paleo‐oil reservoir in the Micangshan tectonic belt. All initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of sphalerite and galena (0.70955–0.71212) fall into the range of the Mesoproterozoic Huodiya Group basement rocks (0.70877–0.71997) and Dengying Formation sandstone (0.70927–0.71282), which are significantly higher than those of Cambrian Guojiaba Formation limestone (0.70750–0.70980), Cambrian Guojiaba Formation carbonaceous slate (0.70766–0.71012), and Neoproterozoic Dengying Formation dolostone (0.70835–0.70876). Such Sr isotope signatures suggest that the ore strontium was mainly derived from a mixed source, and both of the Huodiya Group basement rocks and Dengying Formation sandstone were involved in ore formation. Both sphalerite and galena are characterized by an upper‐crustal source of lead (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 17.849–18.022, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.604–15.809, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 37.735–38.402), and their Pb isotopes are higher than, but partly overlap with, those of the Huodiya Group basement rocks, but differ from those of the Guojiaba and Dengying Formations. This suggests that the lead also originated from a mixed source, and the Huodiya Group basement rocks played a significant role. The Sr and Pb isotopic results suggest that the Huodiya Group basement rocks were one of the most important sources of metallogenic material. The geological and geochemical characteristics show that the Nanmushu Zn‐Pb deposit is similar to typical Mississippi Valley type, and the fluid mixing may be a reasonable metallogenic mechanism for Nanmushu Zn‐Pb deposit.     

Lead isotope study of Zn-Pb ore deposits associated with the Basque-Cantabrian basin and Paleozoic basement, Northern Spain

A total of forty-three galena samples from syngenetic and epigenetic Pb-Zn mineralizations emplaced in the Lower Cretaceous Basque-Cantabrian basin and Paleozoic basement of the Cinco Villas massif in the western Pyrenees, have been analyzed for Pb-isotopic composition. Galena from sedex mineralizations hosted in Carboniferous clastic rocks in the Cinco Villas massif display an homogeneous lead isotopic signature (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴4Pb 18.43, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb 15.66, ²⁰⁸Pb/ ²⁰⁴Pb 38.69) suggesting a single lead reservoir. These values are slightly more radiogenic than lead from other European Hercynian deposits, possibly reflecting the influence of a more evolved upper crustal source. Underlying Paleozoic sediments are proposed as lead source for the Cinco Villas massif ores. Analyses from twenty-six galena samples from the four strata-bound ore districts hosted in Mesozoic rocks reveal the existence of two populations regarding their lead isotopic composition. Galena from the western Santander districts (e.g., Reocin) is characterized by more radiogenic isotope values (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb 18.74, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb 15.67, ²⁰⁸Pb/ ²⁰⁴Pb 38.73) than those from the central and eastern districts (Troya-Legorreta, Central and Western Vizcaya, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb 18.59, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb 15.66, ²⁰⁸Pb/ ²⁰⁴Pb 38.73). In all districts, the most likely source for these mineralizations was the thick sequence of Lower Cretaceous clastic sediments. The existence of two separate lead isotopic populations could be the result of regional difference in the composition of the basement rocks and the clastic sediments derived of it or different evolution histories. In both sub-basins, isotopic ratios indicate an increase in crustal influence as the age of the ores decreases.     

Geology and Lead-Isotope Study of the Baiyinnuoer Zn-Pb-Ag Deposit, South Segment of the Da Hinggan Mountains, Northeastern China

The Baiyinnuoer deposit (32.74 Mt ore with grades of 5.44% Zn, 2.02% Pb and 31.36 g t^?1 Ag), the largest Zn‐Pb‐Ag deposit in northern China, is hosted by crystalline limestone and slate of the Early Permian Huanggangliang Formation. Detailed cross‐section mapping indicates stratigraphic and fold structural controls on the mineralization. The Zn‐Pb‐Ag mineralization is hosted predominantly by skarn, which occurs as bedding‐parallel lens that pinch out at the margins of the main economic zone. Three skarn stages are identified at the deposit: (i) garnet‐clinopyroxene; (ii) sulfides; and (iii) carbonate‐epidote. Lead isotopic compositions were determined for galena and sphalerite of the ores, whole rock samples of the Yanshanian granite and granodiorite, Permian marble and tuff, and Jurassic volcanic and subvolcanic rocks in and around the Baiyinnuoer area in order to discuss the sources of ore‐forming materials and the relationship between the ore formation and these whole rocks. Galena and sphalerite of the Baiyinnuoer ore have uniform isotopic ratios (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 18.267–18.369; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.506–15.624; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 38.078–38.394) consistent with the granite and granodiorite (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 18.252–18.346; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.504–15.560; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 38.141–38.320), whereas the ratios for Jurassic volcanic and subvolcanic rocks are variable and radiogenic (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 18.468–18.614; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.521–15.557; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 38.304–38.375). These results indicate that the mineralization was not related to the Jurassic volcanism, but to the Yanshanian magmatism. The Permian strata may have a slight contribution to the mineralization. All features show that the Baiyinnuoer deposit is related to the Yanshanian granitic magmatism, and can be classified as a zinc‐lead‐silver skarn deposit.     

Isotope characterization of lead in galena from ore deposits of the Aysén Region, southern Chile

Lead isotope analyses of galena from five ore deposits and six prospects in the Aysén region of southern Chile are reported. Most of the deposits are either low sulfidation epithermal gold–silver veins or skarn and manto deposits; the majority are either suspected to be, or dated as, Late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous. Galena lead isotope data for most of the deposits from southern Chile cluster near the “orogene” within a “plumbotectonic” model framework. Average values (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=18.53, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=15.63, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=38.50) are near Jurassic to Cretaceous model ages on the “orogene” curve of Zartman and Doe (1981) and the second-stage curve of Stacey and Kramers (1975) on a ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb versus ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb plot. These model ages are compatible with absolute ages as currently known. The elongate trends in the general cluster indicate mainly an orogenic model fit, suggesting variable mixing of lead from different sources, mainly model upper crust and lesser model mantle and lower crust reservoirs. Galena lead associated with one deposit (El Faldeo) is relatively radiogenic, and lies near a Jurassic age on the “upper crustal” curve of Zartman and Doe (1981), which is compatible with the Ar/Ar age of the deposit. Galena lead isotope clusters define three main groups of deposits. These three groups appear to be related to three mineralizing events, dated by K–Ar and Ar/Ar, in the Late Jurassic (group 3), and in the Early and mid-Cretaceous (groups 1 and 2 respectively). Averages for group 1, the northern group including El Toqui and Katerfeld, are ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=18.51, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=15.62, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=38.48. Averages for group 2, the southern group with Fachinal and Mina Silva, are ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.56, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=15.63, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=38.52. Averages for group 3, the southernmost group with the El Faldeo, Lago Chacabuco and Lago Cochrane prospects, are ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=18.83, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=15.65, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=38.63. The Cretaceous deposits (groups 1 and 2) contain orogene-type lead that becomes increasingly radiogenic southward. Lead from the Late Jurassic deposits (group 3) appears to reflect mixing of orogene lead with highly radiogenic lead. The observed linear array of lead in group 3 probably reflects mixing of orogene lead with highly radiogenic lead, which was likely extracted by selective leaching of mineralizing hydrothermal solutions from the metamorphic basement. Received: 10 July 1999 / Accepted: 15 July 2000     

Sulfur isotopic composition of sulfides at the Mangazeya silver deposit,Eastern Sakha-Yakutia,Russia

The succession of the formation of ore zones and sulfur isotope ratio of sulfides at the Mangazeya Ag deposit have been studied. The deposit is located in the Nyuektame Fault Zone in the eastern limb of the Endybal Anticline. The ore zones are hosted in the Middle Carboniferous to Middle Jurassic terrigenous sequences of the Verkhoyansk Complex intruded by the Endybal subvolcanic stock and felsic and mafic dikes. Three ore stages are distinguished: (I) gold-rare metal, (II) cassiterite-sulfide, and (III) silver-base-metal. Products of these stages are spatially isolated. The δ³⁴S of sulfides ranges from −6.4 to +8.0‰. In the sulfides of the gold-rare metal assemblage, this value varies from −1.8 to +4.7‰; in the sulfides of the cassiterite-sulfide stage, −6.4 to +6.6‰; and in the sulfides of the silver-base-metal assemblage, -5.6 to +8.0‰. A sulfur isotope thermometer indicates the temperature of mineral deposition at 315–415°C for the first stage and 125–280°C for the third stage. Possible causes of variable sulfur isotopic composition in sulfides are discussed. The data on the sulfur isotope ratio is interpreted in terms of involvement of magmatic fluid (δ³⁴S ∼ 0) in the mineralizing process along with low-temperature fluid taking sulfur from host rocks (δ³⁴S ≫ 0). Boiling and mixing of magmatic fluid with heated meteoric water were important at the last stage of the deposit formation.     

Isotopic and fluid-inclusion constraints on the formation of polymetallic vein deposits in the central Argentinian Patagonia

The lead isotope compositions of galena and the fluid-inclusion systematics of nine barite-bearing polymetallic (Au, Ag, Pb, Zn) deposits of the central Argentinian Patagonia (Chubut and Rio Negro provinces) have been investigated to constrain the compositions and sources of the mineralizing fluids. Most of the deposits occur as veins, with less common wall-rock disseminations and/or stockworks, and are low-sulfidation epithermal deposits hosted in Jurassic volcanic rocks. Fluid-inclusion homogenization temperatures (Th) from quartz and sphalerite from the deposits fall within the range of 100-300 °C, with the highest measured average temperatures for the most eastern deposits (Mina Angela - 298 °C; Cañadón Bagual - 343 °C). The salinities of the hydrothermal fluids at all deposits were low to moderate (⢪.4 equiv. wt% NaCl). Three groups of ore deposits can be defined on the basis of ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios for galena and these show a general decrease from west to east (from 18.506 to 18.000). The central Argentinian Patagonia deposits have distinctly less radiogenic lead isotope compositions than similar deposits from Peru and Chile, except for the porphyry copper deposits of central and southern Peru. Galena from the Mina Angela deposit is characterized by very low radiogenic lead isotope compositions (18.000<²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb<18.037 and 38.03<²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb<38.09) and reflects interaction with Precambrian basement. The geographic trend in lead isotope compositions of both galena and whole rocks indicates a crustal contribution which increases eastwards, also reflected in the strontium-neodymium isotope systematics of the host lavas. Finally, due to the lack of precise age determinations for the central Patagonian polymetallic deposits, a potential link with Andean porphyry copper systems remains an open question.     

Isotope Geochemistry of the Pb-Zn-Ba(-Ag-Au) Mineralization at Triades-Galana,Milos Island,Greece

The Pb-Zn-Ba(-Ag-Au) mineralization in the Triades and Galana mine areas is hosted in 2.5–1.4 Ma pyroclastic rocks, and structurally controlled mostly by NE-SW or N-S trending brittle faults. Proximal pervasive silica and distal pervasive sericite-illite alteration are the two main alteration types present at the surface. The distribution of mineralization-alteration in the district suggests at least two hydrothermal events or that hydrothermal activity lasted longer at Galana. The Sr isotope signature of sphalerite and barite (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.709162 to 0.710214) and calculated oxygen isotope composition of a fluid in equilibrium with barite and associated quartz at temperatures of around 230°C are suggestive of a seawater hydrothermal system and fluid/rock interaction. Lead isotope ratios of galena and sphalerite (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb from 18.8384 to 18.8711; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb from 15.6695 to 15.6976; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb from 38.9158 to 39.0161) are similar to those of South Aegean Arc volcanic and Aegean Miocene plutonic rocks, and compatible with Pb derived from an igneous source. Galena and sphalerite from Triades-Galana have δ³⁴S_VCDT values ranging from +1 to +3.6‰, whereas barite sulfate shows δ³⁴S_VCDT values from +22.8 to +24.4‰. The sulfur isotope signatures of these minerals are explained by seawater sulfate reduction processes. The new analytical data are consistent with a seawater-dominated hydrothermal system and interaction of the hydrothermal fluid with the country rocks, which are the source of the ore metals.     

Lead Isotope Characteristics of the Mindyak Gold Deposit,Southern Urals: Evidence for the Source of Metals

The isotopic composition of Pb in pyrite of the Mindyak orogenic gold deposit located in the Main Ural Fault Zone, the Southern Urals, has been studied by the high-precision MC-ICP-MS method. Orebodies at the deposit are composed of early pyrite and late polysulfide–carbonate–quartz mineral assemblages. The orebodies are localized in olistostrome with carbonaceous clayey-cherty cement. Pyrites from early and late mineral assemblages are close in Pb isotope ratios. For early pyrite ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.250–18.336, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.645–15.653, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.179–38.461; while for late pyrite ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.102–18.378, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.635–15.646, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.149–38.320. The model parameters μ₂ (²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb = 9.91 ± 2), ω₂ (²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.5 ± 4), and ²³²Th/²³⁸U = 3.88 ± 3 indicate that an upper crustal Pb source played a leading role in ore formation. Carbonaceous shale as an olistostrome cement and syngenetic sulfide mineralization are considered to be the main Pb sources of both early and late mineral assemblages. An additional recept in apparently magmatic lead is suggested for the late veinlet mineralization. The involvement of lead from several sources in ore formation is consistent with the genetic model, which assumes a two-stage formation of orebodies at the Mindyak deposit.     

The Paleozoic Ozbak-Kuh carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposit of East Central Iran: Isotope (C,O, S,Pb) geochemistry and ore genesis

Lead and zinc mineralization occurs in dolostones of the Middle Devonian Sibzar Formation at Ozbak-Kuh, which is located 150 km north of Tabas city in East Central Iran. The ore is composed of galena, sphalerite and calcite, with subordinate dolomite and bitumen. Wall-rock alterations include carbonate recrystallization and dolomitization. Microscopic studies reveal that the host rock is replaced by galena and sphalerite. The Pb–Zn mineralization is epigenetic and stratabound. The δ¹³C values of hydrothermal calcite samples fall in the narrow range between ?0.3‰ and 0.8‰. The δ¹⁸O values in calcite display a wider range, between ?14.5‰ and ?11.9‰. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values overlap with the oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of Paleozoic seawater, indicating the possible important participation of Paleozoic seawater in the ore-forming fluid. The δ¹⁸O signature corresponds to a spread in temperature of about 70 °C in the ore-bearing fluid. The δ¹³C values indicate that the organic materials within the host rocks did not contribute significantly in the hydrothermal fluid. The δ³⁴S values of galena and sphalerite samples occupy the ranges of 12.2‰–16.0‰ and 12.1–16.8‰, respectively. These values reveal that the seawater sulfate is the most probable source of sulfur. The reduced sulfur was most likely supplied through thermochemical sulfate reduction. The sulfur isotope ratios of co-precipitated sphalerite–galena pairs suggest that deposition of the sulfide minerals took place under chemical disequilibrium conditions. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of the galena samples represent average values of 18.08, 15.66, and 38.50, respectively. These ratios indicate that galena Pb likely originated from an orogenic source in which supracrustal rocks with high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb and ²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb ratios are dominant. The average lead isotope model age portrays Cambrian age. This model age is not coeval with the host rocks, which are of middle Devonian age. It is probable that the pre-Middle Devonian model age shows the derivation of Pb from older sources either from host rocks of Cambrian age or from deposits previously formed in these rock units. The Pb isotopic composition of galena accords with the occurrence of an orogenic activity from Late Neoproterozoic to Lower Cambrian in Central Iran. The proposed genetic model considers the fact that mineralization formed in fractured and brecciated host rocks along shear zones and faults from metal-bearing connate waters that were discharged due to deformational dewatering of sediments.     

Geochemical/isotopic evolution of Pb–Zn deposits in the Central and Eastern Taurides,Turkey

The Central and Eastern Taurides contain numerous carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposits, mainly in Devonian and Permian dolomitized reefal–stramatolitic limestones, and in massive Jurassic limestones. We present and compare new fluid inclusion and isotopic data from these ore deposits, and propose for the first time a Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) mode of origin for them.

Fluid inclusion studies reveal that the ore fluids were highly saline (13–26% NaCl equiv.), chloride-rich (CaCl₂) brines, and have average homogenization temperatures of 112°C, 174.5°C, and 211°C for the Celal Da?, Delikkaya, and Ayrakl? deposits, respectively. Furthermore, the δ³⁴S values of carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposits in the Central and Eastern Taurides vary between –5.4‰ and?+13.70‰. This indicates a possible source of sulphur from both organic compounds and crustal materials. In contrast, stable sulphur isotope data (average δ³⁴S –0.15‰) for the Çad?rkaya deposit, which is related to a late Eocene–Oligocene (?) granodioritic intrusion, indicates a magmatic source. The lead isotope ratios of galena for all investigated deposits are heterogeneous. In particular, with the exception of the Suçat? district, all deposits in the Eastern (Delikkaya, Ayrakl?, Denizovas?, Çad?rkaya) and Central (Katranba??, Küçüksu) Taurides have high radiogenic lead isotope values (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb between 19.058 and 18.622; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb between 16.058 and 15.568; and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb between 39.869 and 38.748), typical of the upper continental crust and orogenic belts.

Fluid inclusion, stable sulphur, and radiogenic lead isotope studies indicate that carbonate-hosted metal deposits in the Eastern (except for the Çad?rkaya deposit) and the Central Taurides are similar to MVT Pb–Zn deposits described elsewhere. The primary MVT deposits are associated with the Late Cretaceous–Palaeocene closure of the Tethyan Ocean, and formed during the transition from an extensional to a compressional regime. Palaeogene nappes that typically limit the exposure of ore bodies indicate a pre-Palaeocene age of ore formation. Host rock lithology, ore mineralogy, fluid inclusion, and sulphur?+?lead isotope data indicate that the metals were most probably leached from a crustal source such as clastic rocks or a crystalline massif, and transported by chloride-rich hydrothermal solutions to the site of deposition. Localization of the ore deposits on autochthonous basement highs indicates long-term basinal fluid migration, characteristic of MVT depositional processes. The primary MVT ores were oxidized in the Miocene, resulting in deposition of Zn-carbonate and Pb-sulphate–carbonate during karstification. The ores underwent multiple cycles of oxidation and, in places, were re-deposited to form clastic deposits. Modified deposits resemble the ‘wall-rock replacement’ and the ‘residual and karst fill’ of non-sulphide zinc deposits and are predominantly composed of smithsonite.     

Origin and formational history of some Pb-Zn deposits from Alborz and Central Iran: Pb isotope constraints

Several Pb-Zn deposits and occurrences within Iran are hosted by Mesozoic–Tertiary-aged sedimentary and igneous rocks. This study reports new Pb isotope analyses for galena from 14 Pb-Zn deposits in the Alborz and Central Iran structural zones. In general, Pb isotope ratios are extremely variable with data plotting between the upper crustal and orogenic curves in a plumbotectonic diagram. The latter may be attributed to Pb inputs from crustal and mantle end-members. Most of the galena samples are characterized by high ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios, suggesting significant input of Pb from old continental crust or pelagic sediment. Pb isotope data also indicate that some of the deposits, which are hosted by sedimentary rocks in Central Iran and Alborz, have similar Pb isotopic compositions and hence suggest similar source regions. Most of the galenas yield Pb model ‘ages’ that vary between ~140 and ~250 Ma, indicating that mineralization resulted from the extraction of ore-bearing fluids from Upper Triassic–Lower Jurassic sequences. The similarity in Pb isotope ratios for the Pb-Zn deposits located within these zones suggests analogous crustal evolution histories. Our preferred interpretation is that Pb-Zn mineralization within the sedimentary and igneous rocks of the Central Iran and Alborz tectonic regions occurred following a Late Cretaceous–Tertiary accretionary stage of crustal thickening in Iran.     

An Eburnean base metal source for sediment-hosted zinc-lead deposits in Neoproterozoic units of Namibia: Lead isotopic and geochemical evidence

The lead isotopic composition of galena from the Neoproterozoic sediment-hosted Zn-Pb sulphide deposit at Rosh Pinah and the oxidised Zn deposit at Skorpion in the Pan-African Gariep Belt, southwestern Namibia, as well as that of galena from minor occurrences in the wider Rosh Pinah ore province was investigated and is compared with that of other major sediment-hosted base metal ore deposits hosted by Neoproterozoic strata in southwestern Africa and Brazil. The isotope data were supplemented by a geochemical provenance study of the argillitic host rock to the Rosh Pinah deposit and its stratigraphic equivalents. The pre-orogenic Rosh Pinah deposit and the inferred progenitor for the secondary Skorpion deposits have very similar Pb isotopic compositions. In contrast, syn-orogenic deposits (e.g. Tsumeb-type) show a larger proportion of radiogenic Pb from the country rocks that were infiltrated by orogenic ore fluids.In all examples studied, the ore Pb has elevated ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios compared to Pb that evolved according to average crustal Pb growth models. The isotopic composition of the ore Pb is in agreement with that of the oldest crustal component known from the pre-Gariep basement, i.e. an Eburnean (c. 2.0 Ga) volcanic arc, best preserved in the Richtersveld Terrane, that represents the largest volume of post-Archaean juvenile crust in southern Africa. Erosion of that arc provided the main sediment source for the metasedimentary siliciclastic host to the Rosh Pinah deposit. Derivation of the Pb, and by analogy Zn, from this Eburnean volcanic arc is therefore inferred for the formation of Rosh Pinah-type syn-rift, early diagenetic replacement mineralisation.The calculated ₂- and ₂-values for the Rosh Pinah ore province (around 10.2 and 42, respectively) are higher than predicted by conventional Pb crustal growth models and are similar to those found in the wider region of southern Africa (Otavi Mountain Land) and eastern Brazil. The obtained data highlight not only that calculated Pb model ages may have no geochronological significance but might also point to a common crustal evolution of this part of SW-Gondwana.Editorial handling: M. Chiaradia     

陆缘裂谷盆地的形成演化与VMS矿床形成特征和成因类型的关系：以云南鲁春铜矿为例

云南鲁春铜矿位于“三江”地区金沙江造山带内的鲁春—红坡牛场裂谷盆地。研究发现,鲁春铜矿赋存于一套以长英质为主的双峰式火山岩中,矿体分布呈“上层下脉”状,具有“上黄下黑”的金属分带特征,矿石矿物以方铅矿、闪锌矿和黄铜矿为主。而地球化学特征显示矿石与蚀变围岩及矿区火山岩的微量元素配分特征具有良好的相似性。矿石硫化物的δ34S值为115‰~178‰,矿石铅同位素比值为206Pb/204Pb=18498~18626,207Pb/204Pb=15588~15760, 208Pb/204Pb=38430~38974。阐述了鲁春—红坡牛场裂谷盆地的演化历史以及盆地内大量双峰式火山岩具有洋脊或板内拉张的特征,陆缘火山弧中重新拉张塌陷形成裂谷盆地,造成基底玄武岩浆上侵,从而导致大规模双峰式火山岩的喷发,这一系列特殊的构造背景和成矿环境促进了地壳内热液循环系统的形成,含矿热液的上升喷流和矿质沉淀集积,最终导致矿床形成。