Extensive serendipitous X-ray coverage of a flare star with ROSAT

We report the serendipitous discovery of a flare star observed with the ROSAT X-ray observatory. From optical spectra, which show strong and variable emission lines of the hydrogen Balmer series and neutral helium, we classify this object as a M3.0Ve star, and estimate a distance of 52 pc from published photometry. Owing to the close proximity of the star (13.6 arcmin) to the calibration source and RS CVn binary AR Lacertae, long-term X-ray coverage is available in the ROSAT archive (∼50 h spanning 6.5 yr). Two large flare events occurred early in the mission (1990 June–July), and the end of a third flare was detected in 1996 June. One flare, observed with the Position Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC), had a peak luminosity L _X=1.1×10³⁰ erg s⁻¹, an e-folding rise time of 2.2 h and a decay time of 7 h. This decay time is one of the longest detected on a dMe star, providing evidence for the possibility of additional heating during the decay phase. A large High Resolution Imager (HRI) flare (peak L _X=2.9×10³⁰ erg s⁻¹) is also studied. The 'background' X-ray emission is also variable – evidence for low-level flaring or microflaring. We find that 59 per cent of the HRI counts and 68 per cent of the PSPC counts are caused by flares. At least 41 per cent of the HRI exposure time and 47 per cent of the PSPC are affected by detectable flare enhancement.     

ROSAT All-Sky Survey X-ray and EUV observations of YY Gem and AU Mic

Simultaneous X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) ( ROSAT XRT and WFC All-Sky Survey) observations of the highly active dMe flare stars YY Gem and AU Mic show that the two stars displayed an unusual type of flaring behaviour. We detect several X-ray and EUV flares superimposed on an enhanced and smoothly varying quiescent background. The two large impulsive-type X-ray flares on YY Gem reach peak X-ray luminosities of     and we estimate that they had similar integrated luminosities (∼6–8×10³³ erg). AU Mic also produced several X-ray and EUV flares, with one very impulsive flare producing a 10-fold increase in XRT count rate. This flare was even larger than the YY Gem flares (peak L _X of     and integrated L _X of    
The     ratio for both stars is at the 'saturation' limit found in rapidly rotating dwarfs and the most active RS CVn stars. We suggest that the gradually varying components are the result of a period of continuous, unresolved flaring activity. Alternatively, they may be the result of the emergence and subsequent decay of a new magnetic active region on the stellar surface of these stars.     

The role of non-thermal electrons in the optical continuum of stellar flares

The continuum emission of stellar flares in UV and visible bands can be enhanced by two or even three orders of magnitude relative to the quiescent level and is usually characterized by a blue colour. It is difficult for thermal atmospheric models to reproduce all these spectral features. If the flaring process involves the acceleration of energetic electrons which then precipitate downwards to heat the lower atmosphere, collisional excitation and ionization of ambient hydrogen atoms by these non-thermal electrons could be important in powering the continuum emission. To explore such a possibility, we compute the continuum spectra from an atmospheric model for a dMe star, AD Leo, at its quiescent state, when considering the non-thermal effects by precipitating electron beams. The results show that if the electron beam has an energy flux large enough (for example, ℱ₁∼10¹² erg cm⁻² s⁻¹), the U -band brightening and, in particular, the U − B colour are roughly comparable with observed values for a typical large flare. Moreover, for electron beams with a moderate energy flux ℱ₁≲10¹¹ erg cm⁻² s⁻¹, a decrease of the emission at the Paschen continuum appears. This can explain at least partly the continuum dimming observed in some stellar flares. Adopting an atmospheric model for the flaring state can further raise the continuum flux, but it yields a spectral colour incomparable with observations. This implies that the non-thermal effects may play the chief role in powering the continuum emission in some stellar flares.     

The radio spectrum of a quiescent stellar mass black hole

Observations of V404 Cyg performed using the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope at four frequencies, over the interval 1.4–8.4 GHz, have provided us with the first broad-band radio spectrum of a 'quiescent' stellar mass black hole. The measured mean flux density is of 0.35 mJy, with a spectral index  α=+0.09 ± 0.19  (such that   S _ν∝ν^α  ). Synchrotron emission from an inhomogeneous partially self-absorbed outflow of plasma accounts for the flat/inverted radio spectrum, in analogy with hard-state black hole X-ray binaries, indicating that a steady jet is being produced between a few 10⁻⁶ and a few per cent of the Eddington X-ray luminosity.     

Simultaneous ROSAT XRT and WFC observations of a sample of active dwarf stars

The X-ray observations of the ROSAT -PSPC All-Sky Survey have revealed bright and energetic coronae for a number of late-type main-sequence stars, many of them flare stars. We have detected 31 X-ray flares on 14 stars. A search for simultaneous X-ray and EUV (extreme ultraviolet) flares using ROSAT Wide Field Camera survey data revealed a large number of simultaneous flares. These results indicate that the heating mechanisms of the X-ray and EUV‐emitting regions of the stellar coronae are similar. We find X-ray quiescent variability for nine of the 14 stars and simultaneous X-ray and EUV quiescent variability for seven of these nine stars. These results imply that the stellar coronae are in a continuous state of low-level activity. There are tight linear correlations of X-ray flare luminosity with the 'quiescent' X-ray as well as with the stellar bolometric luminosity. The similarity between the X-ray-to‐EUV quiescent and flare luminosity ratios suggests that the two underlying spectra are also similar. Both are indeed consistent with the previously determined Einstein two-temperature models. We suggest that both the variability and spectral results could indicate that the quiescent emission is composed of a multitude of unresolved flares.     

Cygnus X-3 with ISO: investigating the wind

We have observed the energetic binary Cygnus X-3 in both quiescent and flaring states between 4 and 16 μm using the ISO satellite. We find that the quiescent source shows the thermal free–free spectrum typical of a hot, fast stellar wind, such as from a massive helium star. The quiescent mass-loss rate arising from a spherically symmetric, non-accelerating wind is found to be in the range (0.4–2.9)×10⁻⁴ M_⊙ yr⁻¹, consistent with other infrared and radio observations, but considerably larger than the 10⁻⁵ M_⊙ yr⁻¹ deduced from both the orbital change and the X-ray column density. There is rapid, large-amplitude flaring at 4.5 and 11.5 μm at the same time as enhanced radio and X-ray activity, with the infrared spectrum apparently becoming flatter in the flaring state. We believe that non-thermal processes are operating, perhaps along with enhanced thermal emission.     

Flare variability in the close binary FL Vir

The results of U -filter flare monitoring of the binary flare star FL Vir = Wolf 424 is presented. 57 flares with energies between  2 × 10²⁸  and  2 × 10³¹ erg  were recorded in 20 h of observation. The properties of flare occurrence and flare time-scales are analysed, and the flare activity level in 1980 April is determined to be   L _f( U ) = 8.0 × 10²⁶ erg s⁻¹  . This is larger than previously published results and may indicate a variation in the flare activity level on a time-scale of years. An analysis of existing data indicates that the flare activity level correlates with the relative orbital positions of the stars.     

Radio flares and plasmon size in Cygnus X-3

We have observed a number of minor radio flares in Cyg X-3 using the MERLIN array. Photometric observations show the system to be highly active with multiple flares on hourly time-scales over the one month observing programme. Analysis of the power spectrum of the source show no persistent periodicities in these data, and no evidence of the 4.8-h orbital period. An upper limit of 15 mJy can be placed on the amplitude of any sinusoidal variation of source flux at the orbital period. The brightness temperature of a flare is typically T _b≥10⁹–10¹⁰ K , with a number of small flares of 5-min duration having brightness temperatures of T _b≥ few×10¹¹ K . For such a change in flux to occur within a typical 10-min time-scale, the radiation must originate from plasmons with a size ≤1.22 au. This emission is unlikely to originate close to the centre of the system as both the jets and compact object are buried deep within an optically thick stellar wind. Assuming a spherically symmetric wind, plasmons would become visible at distances ∼13 au from the core.     

Constraints on black hole accretion in V Puppis

In light of the recent suggestion that the nearby eclipsing binary star system V Puppis has a dark companion on a long orbit, we present the results of radio and X-ray observations of it. We find an upper limit on its radio flux of about 300 μJy and a detection of it in the X-rays with a luminosity of about  3 × 10³¹  erg s⁻¹, a value much lower than what had been observed in some of the low angular resolution surveys of the past. These data are in good agreement with the idea that the X-ray emission from V Puppis comes from mass transfer between the two B stars in the system, but can still accommodate the idea that the X-ray emission comes from the black hole accreting stellar wind from one or both of the B stars.     

Multiband photometric detection of a huge flare on the M9 dwarf 2MASSW J1707183+643933

We present simultaneous UV , G , R and I monitoring of 19 M dwarfs that reveal a huge flare on the M9 dwarf with an amplitude in the UV of at least 6 mag. This is one of the strongest detections ever of an optical flare in an M star and one of the first in an ultracool dwarf (spectral types later than about M7). Four intermediate-strength flares  (Δ m _UV < 4 mag)  were found in this and three other targets. For the whole sample we deduce a flare probability of 0.013 (rate of  0.022 h⁻¹  ), and  0.049 (0.090 h⁻¹)  for 2M1707+64 alone. Deviations of the flare emission from a blackbody is consistent with strong  Hα  line emission. We also confirm our previously found rotation period for 2M1707+64 and determine it more precisely to be  3.619 ± 0.015 h  .     

ASCA spectroscopy of the hard X-ray emission from the colliding wind interaction in γ2 Velorum

We discuss an ASCA observation of the eccentric WC8+O7.5 III binary γ ² Velorum near apastron. The X-ray spectrum is compared with two previous observations obtained when the system was near periastron. All three spectra display a hard-emission component that undergoes strong variability over the orbital cycle. The properties of the hard X-ray emission of γ ² Vel are constrained by taking into account the contribution from contaminating soft X-ray sources in the vicinity of γ ² Vel. We find that the observed variations are in qualitative agreement with the predictions of colliding wind models. We investigate for the first time the effect of uncertainties in the chemical composition of the X-ray emitting plasma on our understanding of the high-energy properties of the wind interaction region. Our results indicate that these uncertainties significantly affect the derived shock temperature and absorption column, but play a smaller role in determining the intrinsic X-ray luminosity of the colliding wind zone. We further find that the intrinsic luminosity from the hard X-ray component in γ ² Vel does not follow the 1/ D distance relation expected from simple models of adiabatic shocks.     

RR Pic (1925): a Chandra X-ray view

We present the Chandra ACIS-S3 data of the old classical nova RR Pic (1925). The source has a count rate of 0.067 ± 0.002 count s⁻¹ in the 0.3–5.0 keV energy range. We detect the orbital period of the underlying binary system in the X-ray wavelengths. We also find that the neutral hydrogen column density differs for orbital minimum and orbital maximum spectra with values  0.25^+0.23_−0.18× 10²²  and  0.64^+0.13_−0.14× 10²² cm⁻²  at 3σ confidence level. The X-ray spectrum of RR Pic can be represented by a composite model of bremsstrahlung with a photoelectric absorption, two absorption lines centered around 1.1–1.4 keV and five Gaussian lines centered at emission lines around 0.3–1.1 keV corresponding to various transitions of S, N, O, C, Ne and Fe. The bremsstrahlung temperature derived from the fits ranges from 0.99 to 1.60 keV and the unabsorbed X-ray flux is found to be  2.5^+0.4_−1.2× 10⁻¹³ erg  cm⁻² s⁻¹  in the 0.3–5.0 keV range with a luminosity of 1.1 ± 0.2  10³¹ erg s⁻¹  at 600 pc. We also detect excess emission in the spectrum possibly originating from the reverse shock in the ejecta. A fit with a cooling flow plasma emission model shows enhanced abundances of He, C, N, O and Ne in the X-ray emitting region indicating existence of diffusive mixing.     

The very flat radio–millimetre spectrum of Cygnus X-1

We present almost-simultaneous detections of Cygnus X-1 in the radio and mm regimes, obtained during the low/hard X-ray state. The source displays a flat spectrum between 2 and 220 GHz, with a spectral index | α |0.15 (3 σ ). There is no evidence for either a low- or high-frequency cut-off, but in the mid-infrared (∼30 μm) thermal emission from the OB-type companion star becomes dominant. The integrated luminosity of this flat-spectrum emission in quiescence is 2×10³¹ erg s⁻¹ (2×10²⁴ W). Assuming the emission originates in a jet for which non-radiative (e.g. adiabatic expansion) losses dominate, this is a very conservative lower limit on the power required to maintain the jet. A comparison with Cyg X-3 and GRS 1915+105, the other X-ray binaries for which a flat spectrum at shorter than cm wavelengths has been observed, shows that the jet in Cyg X-1 is significantly less luminous and less variable, and is probably our best example to date of a continuous, steady, outflow from an X-ray binary. The emissive mechanism responsible for such a flat spectral component remains uncertain. Specifically, we note that the radio–mm spectra observed from these X-ray binaries are much flatter than those of the 'flat-spectrum' AGN, and that existing models of synchrotron emission from partially self-absorbed radio cores, which predict a high-frequency cut-off in the mm regime, are not directly applicable.     

BF Eridani: a cataclysmic variable with a massive white dwarf and an evolved secondary

We present high- and medium-resolution spectroscopic observations of the cataclysmic variable BF Eridani (BF Eri) during its low and bright states. The orbital period of this system was found to be 0.270881(3) d. The secondary star is clearly visible in the spectra through the absorption lines of the neutral metals Mg  i , Fe  i and Ca  i . Its spectral type was found to be K3±0.5. A radial velocity study of the secondary yielded a semi-amplitude of   K ₂= 182.5 ± 0.9 km s⁻¹  . The radial velocity semi-amplitude of the white dwarf was found to be   K ₁= 74 ± 3 km s⁻¹  from the motion of the wings of the Hα and Hβ emission lines. From these parameters, we have obtained that the secondary in BF Eri is an evolved star with a mass of  0.50–0.59 M_⊙  , whose size is about 30 per cent larger than a zero-age main-sequence single star of the same mass. We also show that BF Eri contains a massive white dwarf  ( M ₁≥ 1.2 M_⊙)  , which allows us to consider the system as a Type Ia supernova progenitor. BF Eri also shows a high γ-velocity  (γ=−94 km s⁻¹)  and substantial proper motion. With our estimation of the distance to the system  ( d ≈ 700 ± 200 pc)  , this corresponds to a space velocity of ∼350 km s⁻¹ with respect to the dynamical local standard of rest. The cumulative effect of repeated nova eruptions with asymmetric envelope ejection might explain the high space velocity of the system. We analyse the outburst behaviour of BF Eri and question the current classification of the system as a dwarf nova. We propose that BF Eri might be an old nova exhibiting 'stunted' outbursts.     

Possible detection of V4334 Sgr (Sakurai's Object) at 450 and 850 μm

We report the possible detection of V4334 Sgr (Sakurai's Object) at 450 and 850 μm with SCUBA on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope. The submillimetre photometry, combined with a  1–5 μm  spectrum and  8–10 μm  photometry obtained nearly contemporaneously, suggests that the submillimetre emission originates in material ejected during the 1995 event. The dust mass is a  few×10^-7 M_⊙  , the average mass-loss in the form of dust is  few×10^-8 M_⊙ yr^-1  , and the integrated luminosity is  log( L /L_⊙)=3.66  for a distance of 2 kpc. The ejected shell had angular diameter ∼55 mas in 2001 August, and should by now be resolvable in the mid-infrared by  8–10 m  class telescopes.     

The 'off' state of GX 339–4

We report BeppoSAX and optical observations of the black hole candidate GX 339–4 during its X-ray 'off' state in 1999. The broad-band (0.8–50 keV) X-ray emission can be fitted by a single power law with spectral index, α ∼1.6. The observed luminosity is 6.6×10³³ erg s⁻¹ in the 0.5–10 keV band, which is at the higher end of the flux distribution of black hole soft X-ray transients in quiescence, comparable to that seen in GS 2023+338 and 4U 1630–47. An optical observation just before the BeppoSAX observation shows the source to be very faint at these wavelengths as well ( B =20.1, V =19.2). By comparing with previously reported 'off' and low states (LS), we conclude that the 'off' state is actually an extension of the LS, i.e. an LS at lower intensities. We propose that accretion models such as the advection-dominated accretion flows are able to explain the observed properties in such a state.     

Magnetic activity in stellar merger products

We study the expected X-ray luminosity of stellar merger products several years after merger. The X-ray emission is assumed to result from magnetic activity. The extended envelope of the merger product possesses a large convective region and it is expected to rotate fast. The rotation and convection might give rise to an efficient dynamo operation; therefore we expect strong magnetic activity. Using well-known relations connecting magnetic activity and X-ray luminosity in other types of magnetically active stars, we estimate that the strong X-ray luminosity will start several years after merger, will reach a maximum of L _x∼ 3 × 10³⁰ erg s⁻¹, and will slowly decline on a time-scale of ∼100 yr. We predict that X-ray emission from V838 Mon which erupted in 2002 will be detected in 2008 with 20 h of observation.     

The kinematics and zero-point of the log P–〈MK〉 relation for Galactic RR Lyrae variables via statistical parallax

We use accurate absolute proper motions and Two-Micron All-Sky Survey   K_s   -band apparent magnitudes for 364 Galactic RR Lyrae variables to determine the kinematical parameters of the Galactic RR Lyrae population and constrain the zero-point of the   K_s   -band period–luminosity relation for these stars via statistical parallax. We find the mean velocities of the halo- and thick-disc RR Lyrae populations in the solar neighbourhood to be  [ U ₀(Halo), V ₀(Halo), W ₀(Halo)]= (−12 ± 10, −217 ± 9, −6 ± 6) km s⁻¹  and  [ U ₀(Disc), V ₀(Disc), W ₀(Disc)]= (−15 ± 7, −44 ± 7, −25 ± 5) km s⁻¹  , respectively, and the corresponding components of the velocity-dispersion ellipsoids,  [σ V_R (Halo), σ V _θ(Halo), σ W (Halo)]= (167 ± 9, 86 ± 6, 78 ± 5) km s⁻¹  and  [σ V_R (Disc), σ V _θ(Disc), σ W (Disc)]= (55 ± 7, 44 ± 6, 30 ± 4) km s⁻¹  , respectively. The fraction of thick-disc stars is estimated at  0.25 ± 0.03  . The corrected infrared period–luminosity relation is     , implying a Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) distance modulus of  18.27 ± 0.08  and a solar Galactocentric distance of  7.58 ± 0.40 kpc  . Our results suggest no or slightly prograde rotation for the population of halo RR Lyraes in the Milky Way.     

X-ray emission by a shocked fast wind from the central stars of planetary nebulae

We calculate the X-ray emission from the shocked fast wind blown by the central stars of planetary nebulae (PNe) and compare with observations. Using spherically symmetric self-similar solutions, we calculate the flow structure and X-ray temperature for a fast wind slamming into a previously ejected slow wind. We find that the observed X-ray emission of six PNe can be accounted for by shocked wind segments that were expelled during the early-PN phase, if the fast wind speed is moderate,   v ₂∼ 400–600 km s⁻¹  , and the mass-loss rate is a few times  10⁻⁷ M_⊙ yr⁻¹  . We find, as proposed previously, that the morphology of the X-ray emission is in the form of a narrow ring inner to the optical bright part of the nebula. The bipolar X-ray morphology of several observed PNe, which indicates an important role of jets, rather than a spherical fast wind, cannot be explained by the flow studied here.     

Multiple flaring activity in the supergiant fast X-ray transient IGR J08408−4503 observed with Swift

IGR  J08408−4503  is a supergiant fast X–ray transient discovered in 2006 with a confirmed association with a O8.5Ib(f) supergiant star, HD 74194. We report on the analysis of two outbursts caught by Swift /Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) on 2006 October 4 and 2008 July 5, and followed up at softer energies with Swift /X-ray Telescope (XRT). The 2008 XRT light curve shows a multiple-peaked structure with an initial bright flare that reached a flux of  ∼10⁻⁹ erg cm⁻² s⁻¹  (2–10 keV), followed by two equally bright flares within 75 ks. The spectral characteristics of the flares differ dramatically, with most of the difference, as derived via time-resolved spectroscopy, being due to absorbing column variations. We observe a gradual decrease in the N _H, derived with a fit using absorbed power-law model, as time passes. We interpret these N _H variations as due to an ionization effect produced by the first flare, resulting in a significant decrease in the measured column density towards the source. The durations of the flares as well as the times of the outbursts suggest that the orbital period is ∼35 d, if the flaring activity is interpreted within the framework of the Sidoli et al. model with the outbursts triggered by the neutron star passage inside an equatorial wind inclined with respect to the orbital plane.