Continental drift,plateau uplift,and the evolutions of monsoon and arid regions in Asia,Africa, and Australia during the Cenozoic

Monsoon and arid regions in the Asia-Africa-Australia(A-A-A) realm occupy more than 60% of the total area of these continents. Geological evidence showed that significant changes occurred to the A-A-A environments of the monsoon and arid regions, the land-ocean configuration in the Eastern Hemisphere, and the topography of the Tibetan Plateau(TP) in the Cenozoic. Motivated by this background, numerical experiments for 5 typical geological periods during the Cenozoic were conducted using a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model to systemically explore the formations and evolutionary histories of the Cenozoic A-A-A monsoon and arid regions under the influences of continental drift and plateau uplift. Results of the numerical experiments indicate that the timings and causes of the formations of monsoon and arid regions in the A-A-A realm were very different. The northern and southern African monsoons existed during the mid-Paleocene, while the South Asian monsoon appeared in the Eocene after the Indian Subcontinent moved into the tropical Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, the East Asian monsoon and northern Australian monsoon were established much later in the Miocene. The establishment of the tropical monsoons in northern and southern Africa, South Asia, and Australia were determined by both the continental drift and seasonal migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ), while the position and height of the TP were the key factor for the establishment of the East Asian monsoon. The presence of the subtropical arid regions in northern and southern Africa,Asia, and Australia depended on the positions of the continents and the control of the planetary scale subtropical high pressure zones, while the arid regions in the Arabian Peninsula and West Asia were closely related to the retreat of the Paratethys Sea. The formation of the mid-latitude arid region in the Asian interior, on the other hand, was the consequence of the uplift of the TP.These results from this study provide insight to the important roles played by the earth's tectonic boundary conditions in the formations and evolutions of regional climates during geological times.     

An overview of the influence of atmospheric circulation on the climate in arid and semi-arid region of Central and East Asia

The arid and semi-arid (ASA) region of Asia occupies a large area in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, of which the main body is the ASA region of Central and East Asia (CEA). In this region, the climate is fragile and the environment is sensitive. The eastern part of the ASA region of CEA is located in the marginal zone of the East Asian monsoon and is jointly influenced by westerly circulation and the monsoon system, while in the western part of the ASA of CEA, the climate is mainly controlled by westerly circulation. To understand and predict the climate over this region, it is necessary to investigate the influence of general circulation on the climate system over the ASA region of CEA. In this paper, recent progress in understanding the relationship between the general circulation and climate change over the ASA region is systematically reviewed. Previous studies have demonstrated that atmospheric circulation represents a significant factor in climate change over the ASA region of CEA. In the years with a strong East Asian summer monsoon, the water vapor flux increases and precipitation is abundant in the southeastern part of Northwest China. The opposite situation occurs in years when the East Asian summer monsoon is weak. With the weakening of the East Asian summer monsoon, the climate tends to dry over the semi-arid region located in the monsoon marginal zone. Recently, owing to the strengthening of the South Asian monsoon, more water vapor has been transported to the ASA region of Asia. The Plateau summer monsoon intensity and the precipitation in summer exhibit a significant positive correlation in Central Asia but a negative correlation in North China and Mongolia. A significant positive correlation also exists between the westerly index and the temperature over the arid region of CEA. The change in the westerly circulation may be the main factor affecting precipitation over the arid region of Central Asia.     

上新世以来构造隆升对亚洲夏季风气候变化的影响

大量地质证据表明,上新世以来(最近5 MaB.P.)青藏高原北部及非洲东部和南部地区出现过显著的构造隆升,而与此同时亚洲季风也经历了显著变化,这两者之间是否存在着因果联系一直是地学界所关心和争论的一个重要科学问题.本文利用美国国家大气研究中心(NCAR)的公用大气模式(CAM 3.1)就上新世以来青藏高原北部及东-南非高原的构造隆升对亚洲夏季风气候变化的影响进行了数值试验研究.结果表明,上新世以来亚洲夏季风的增强与两地构造隆升密切相关,但两者隆升对于亚洲季风子系统的作用是有区别的.青藏高原北部隆升主要造成东亚北部夏季风的增强及季风降水的增多,但对南亚夏季风的作用较小;东-南非高原的隆升明显增强南亚夏季风,但对东亚北部夏季风的影响有限.     

Evolution of Chinese mammalian faunal regions and elevation of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau

Mammals multiplied rapidly with the coming of Cenozoic era. They took the dominant position occu-pied by reptiles during the Mesozoic and became a superior group of vertebrates during the Cenozoic. Fossil mammals are useful for subdivision and dat-ing of Cenozoic terrestrial deposits, by virtue of their high evolutionary rates and high probability for being fossilized. The widespread Chinese Cenozoic sedi-ments, mainly pertaining to continental facies, contain abundant remains of mammals. T…     

The evolution of coupling of Asian winter monsoon and high latitude climate of Northern Hemisphere

The evolution and driving mechanism of the Asian winter monsoon system are of great importance to understanding the present-day climate. Through high-resolution particle size analysis of the oldest loess-red clay sequence known so far (with a basal age of about 8 Ma) and comparison of the results with oxygen isotope curves from North Atlantic marine sediments, 4 stages of the evolution of the Asian winter monsoon were clearly demonstrated. During the first stage, between about 8.1 and 4.3 Ma, there was no relation between Asian winter monsoon and Northern Hemisphere ice volume and high latitude climate inferred from marine sediments. A weak relation developed during the second stage, about 4.3 to 3.5 Ma. During the third stage (3.5 to 2.6 Ma) an Asian winter monsoon system similar to the present formed, initiating a stronger relation between the winter monsoon and Northern Hemisphere ice volume and high latitude climate. In the final stage (2.6 to 0 Ma) the present Asian winter monsoon system was fortified and stabilized and changes in the winter monsoon system were almost in phase with Northern Hemisphere ice volume and climate. The staggered uplift of Tibetan Plateau at ≈8, 3.6, 2.6 Ma and later might be the driving force for the evolution of the Asian winter monsoon.

     

青藏高原南缘现今地球动力学研究

喜马拉雅构造带于新生代时期经历了两代受力条件截然不同的形变。早期造山挤压形变与造山后的引张形变、青藏高原和高喜马拉雅的大幅度抬升。大致低喜马拉雅范围即青藏高原南缘，现今构造活动与青藏高原和高喜马拉雅块断抬升相辅相成。流行的板块聚合动力学模式，即使早新生代发生过，晚新生代以来已经灯熄。东亚大陆现代形变与地震活动的驱动力不可能源于青藏高原南缘被动挤压，而是取决于与高原隆起相关的深部主动动力学过程     

East Asian paleoclimate change in the Weihe Basin(central China)since the middle Eocene revealed by clay mineral analysis

Obtaining a continuous sedimentary record of Cenozoic East Asian paleoclimate change is key to understand the origin, evolution and driving mechanism of the East Asian monsoon and climate change. Based on the continuous Cenozoic fluvial and lacustrine sedimentary sequence in the Weihe Basin, central China, we carried out research on the content and crystal parameters of clay minerals. The paleoclimate change since the middle Eocene was reconstructed accordingly. The results show that smectite and illite are the dominant clay minerals in fluvial-lacustrine sediments of Weihe Basin. The crystallinity of illite,the chemical index of illite, the ratio of smectite to illite and chlorite decrease gradually, which indicates that chemical weathering in the Weihe River watershed stepwise weakened since the middle Eocene, under the background of a semi-arid and semi-humid climate. The formation of palygorskite may be affected by a weak diagenesis. In this case, the content of smectite and the illite crystallinity caused by the weathering in the corresponding period may be actually higher than that of the current,which indicates that the climate in the Weihe Basin region was relatively warm and humid from the middle Eocene to Pliocene.With the decrease of Cenozoic global temperature and the continuous accumulation of sediments, the intensity of chemical weathering in the Weihe Basin gradually weakened, and the East Asian monsoon climate gradually evolved until becoming dry in the Quaternary. Evidence from clay minerals also indicates that the aridification in the Weihe Basin from the late Eocene to the Oligocene may be a response to the global cooling event at the Eocene-Oligocene transition.     

Eolian evidence from the Chinese Loess Plateau: the onset of the Late Cenozoic Great Glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere and Qinghai-Xizang Plateau uplift forcing

On the basis of a newly-constructed record of magnetic susceptibility (SUS) and the depositional rate change of eolian loess-red clay sequences in the last 7.2 Ma BP from the hea Plateau, together with a cornperison of a record of °¹⁸O values from the equatorial East Pacific Ocean and eolian Quartz flux variations fmm the North Pacific Ocean, the evolutiomuy process of the Late Cenozoic Great Glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere can be divided into three stages: the arrival stage around 7.2–3.4 Ma BP, the initial stage at about 3.4—2.6 Ma BP, and the Great Ice Age since 2.6 Ma BP. The evolution of the East Asian monsoon is characterized by paid winter and summer monsoons, and it is basically composed of the initial stage of weak winter and summer monsoons, the transitional stage of simultaneous increase in intensity of winter and summer monsoons, and the prevailing stage of strong winter and week summer monsoons, or weak winter and strong summer monsoons. The Late Cenowic global tectonic uplift, paaicdarly the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau uplift and the associated CO₂ concentration variation, controls the dng processes of the onset of Great Glaciation and the long-term changes of East Asian monsoom climate in the Northern Hemisphere to a large extent. The accelerating uplift of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau between 3.4 and 2.6 Ma BP provided an important driving force to global climiatic change. Project supported by the foundation of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. KZ951-A1-402), the State Science and Technology Committee (Grant No. 95-pre-40)and the Chinese Nature Science Foundation (Grant No. 49672140)     

Tectonic-climatic events in eastern Qilian Mountains over the past 0.83 Ma

The eastern part of Qilian Mountains experienced strong tectonic uplift during the late Quaternary, and climate record there was influenced by Tibetan Plateau to some extent. Based on studies on the fluvial terrace series and eolian loess deposition, we find that the tectonic uplifts of the Tibetan Plateau had coupled with climatic changes in our studied region and others since the mid-Pleistocene. The uplift that occurred at 0.83 Ma corresponded to significant desert expansion in L6 and periodic variation since MIS16, while the 0.14Ma one to the further drying in northwest China. Those coupled events may indicate that tectonic uplift drove climatic changes, and the Tibetan Plateau has important impacts on East Asian Monsoon system.     

Linkage between the second uplifting of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau and the initiation of the Asian monsoon system

During the period from 25 to 17 Ma BP, when the second plateau uplifting, i.e. the second phase of the Himalaya movement, occurred, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau reached an altitude high enough to chbge the situation of the general circulation. Such an effect of the plateau on the atmospheric circulation was accompanied by the warrning of the tropical ocean, the enhancement of the cross equatorial current, the enlargement of the marginal sea basins in the east-southeastern Asia, the westward extending of the Asian continent and the regression of the Paratethys Sea. As a result, the thermal difference was enlarged, and the air currents were enhanced between continents and oceans; finally the Asian monsoon system, mainly the summer monsoon, was initiated. The former planet wind system was then substituted by the monsoon system, and this caused the important environmental changes, such as the large shrinkage of the dry steppe in Central Asia, and the extension of the humid forest zone in East Asia. Thme changes have been dated at 21.8 Ma BP on the Lingxia profile in the northeastern border of the Tibet Plateau, when the savanna was transformed into the forest. Project supported by the National Climbing Project and Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZ951-A1-204)     

东亚季风边缘带上的植被变化

早期的工作在全球和区域尺度上对气候与植被之间的关系进行了研究,表现在区域上存在差异. 本文集中于东亚季风边缘带上植被变化与季风季节与年际变化的关系分析,分季风区、非季风区和季风边缘区等3个区域做比较分析,结果得出季风边缘区域的植被生长对气候变化的响应较为敏感.     

Grain-size records at ODP Site 1146 from the northern South China Sea: Implications on the East Asian monsoon evolution since 20 Ma

273 samples from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1146 in the northern South China Sea (SCS) were analyzed for grain-size distributions using grain-size class vs. standard deviation method and end-member modeling algorithm (EMMA) in order to investigate the evolution of the East Asian monsoon since about 20 Ma. 10–19 μm/1.3–2.4 μm, the ratio of two grain-size populations with the highest variability through time was used to indicate East Asian winter monsoon intensity relative to summer monsoon. The mass accumulation rate of the coarsest end member EM1 (eolian), resulting from EMMA, can be used as a proxy of winter monsoon strength and Asian inland aridity, and the ratio of EM1/(EM2 EM3) as a proxy of winter monsoon intensity relative to summer monsoon. The combined proxies show that a profound enhancement of East Asian winter monsoon strength and winter monsoon intensity relative to summer monsoon occurred at about 8 Ma, and it is possible that the summer monsoon simultaneously intensified with winter monsoon at 3 Ma. Our results are well consistent with the previous studies in loess, eolian deposion in the Pacifc, radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera in the SCS. The phased uplift of the Himalaya-Tibetan Plateau may have played a significant role in strengthening the Asian monsoon at 8 Ma and 3 Ma.     

Magnetostratigraphy and palaeoclimate of Red Clay sequences from Chinese Loess Plateau

Two Red Clay profiles near Xi’an and Xifeng were investigated in an attempt to determine magnetostratigraphic and palaeoclimatic records. The results show that aeolian dust accumulation and the related East Asia palaeomonsoon system had begun by 6.5 Ma, and it is deduced that the Tibetan Plateau had reached a significant elevation at that time. The late Tertiary palaeoclimatic history of the Red Clay as reflected by magnetic susceptibility is reconstructed during the period of 6.5–2.5 Ma. Stepwise increase in susceptibility of aeolian dust accumulation appears to have a close correlation to the uplift processes of the Tibetan Plateau. The remarkable increase of aeolian dust accumulation at 3.2 Ma appears to be due to the influence of global ice volume on the East Asia monsoon. Palaeomonsoon variation during the late Tertiary as recorded in the Red Clay sequences from the Chinese Loess Plateau can be regarded as the product of a number of interacting factors, such as uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, solar radiation, global ice volume, etc. Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Foundation of Xi’an Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.     

青藏高原季节冻融过程与东亚大气环流关系的研究

利用青藏高原46个气象站的最大冻土深度观测资料、中国160个气象站降水资料和NCAR/NCEP资料，对青藏高原冻土的季节性冻融过程进行合成分析，发现青藏高原土壤的季节冻融过程对青藏高原上空及东亚大气环流有显著的影响，在高原最大冻土深度较小的年份中，7月份，南亚高压强且偏西，500hPa印度低压强，西太平洋副热带高压弱且偏东，高原南部的东风较强；最大冻土深度较大的年份，南亚高压弱且偏东，印度低压弱，西太平洋副热带高压强且偏西. 在不同的冻融年份，850hPa上纬向风的差异显著区反映了西南季风的活动. 最大冻土深度与中国夏季（7月份）降水有3条显著相关带，雨带的分布与中国夏季平均雨带相吻合. 由此，青藏高原季节冻融过程引起的水热变化是影响东亚气候的一个重要外源.     

Onset of Xiashu loess deposition in southern China by 0.9 Ma and its implications for regional aridification

The Xiashu loess is a typical Quaternary eolian deposit in southern China and represents an important terrestrial paleoclimate archive in this low-latitude monsoon region. However, the chronological framework of Xiashu loess deposition has yet to be established. Determining the timing of the onset of Xiashu loess deposition will allow researchers to better understand late Quaternary aridification across the Asian continent, the evolution of the East Asian monsoon and regional environmental changes in subtropical regions. Therefore, in this study, a systematic chronological study of the Xiashu loess is conducted to answer this question. For the first time, magnetostratigraphic classification reveals that the Matuyama/Brunhes (M/B) reversal is present in the Xiashu loess at two sites in Jiangsu Province, the Qingshan profile at Yizheng and the Dagang core in Zhenjiang. Based on the results of magnetostratigraphy and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, the age of the lower boundary of the Xiashu loess is estimated to be approximately 0.9 Ma. Consequently, this Xiashu loess deposit is the oldest reported to date and is comparable in age to the red soil deposit in Xuancheng, Anhui Province. The onset of Xiashu loess deposition by 0.9 Ma represents the further expansion of arid range in Asia in the late Quaternary in response to significant aridification and winter monsoon strengthening in this subtropical region. We suggest that these climate changes were primarily driven by global cooling and an increase in high-latitude ice volume in the Northern Hemisphere and that the initiation of Xiashu loess accumulation was a regional response of southern China to the 0.9 Ma global cooling event.     

Preliminary reconstruction of the desert and sandy land distributions in China since the last interglacial period

The desert and sandy land are the products of arid climate. The spatial distribution of modern deserts and sandy land in China and their relation to climate show following characteristics: arid and hyper-arid desert zones, at isohyet of less than 200 mm, are dominated by mobile dunes; semi-arid steppe and arid desert steppe with the precipitation between 200-400mm, are dominated by semi-fixed and fixed sand dunes; the precipitation of sub-humid forest grassland and humid forest zones with scattered fixed sand land is higher than 400 mm. With this as reference, in combination with considerable amount of paleoclimatic data in desert regions and adjacent regions, the distributions of desert and sandy land in China during the last interglacial period, the last glacial maximum (LGM), and the Holocene megathermal, were preliminarily reconstructed. The results compared with that of today show that the distribution of desert and sandy land in China was greatly dwindled during last interglacial period, and the mobile dune area was about two-thirds of that of today's, but greatly expanded during LGM. However, the dwindling area of desert and sandy land in the Holocene megathermal was smaller than that in the last interglacial period. The forcing mechanism was mainly related to the changes of East Asian winter and summer monsoon, south-northward swing of the westerlies and the variations of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau monsoon intensity caused by global climate changes during the cold and warm intervals since the last interglacial period.     

Precipitation seesaw phenomenon and its formation mechanism in the eastern and western parts of Northwest China during the flood season

Extending across three major plateaus,namely the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau,the Inner Mongolia-Xinjiang Plateau and the Loess Plateau,Northwest China has the complex terrain and spatio-temporal climate variations,and is affected by the interactions among different circulation systems,such as the summer monsoon,the westerlies and the plateau monsoon.The understanding of the climate variability,as well as its characteristics and evolution mechanisms in this area has been limited so far.In this paper,the precipitation characteristics and mechanisms in the eastern and western parts of Northwest China during the flood season are compared and analyzed based on the data from 192 national meteorological observational sites in Northwest China in 1961-2016.The results show that,divided by the northern boundary of the East Asian summer monsoon,there are huge differences in the precipitation variation characteristics between the eastern and western parts.The inter-annual variations,interdecadal variations and total trends in the two parts all show a significant seesaw phenomenon.Moreover,it is found that the seesaw phenomenon of precipitation variation is closely related to the opposite variation between the East Asian summer monsoon index(MI) and the westerly circulation index(WI).In addition,the inverse variations on different time scales are only related to the contributions of precipitation at specific grades.Besides,in the two matching patterns of precipitation in the seesaw phenomenon,the middle and high latitudes are occupied by the "high-low-high" wave trains in the precipitation increases in the east of Northwest China(ENWC) and decreases in the west of Northwest China(WNWC) pattern,meaning precipitation increases in ENWC and decreases in WNWC.Whereas the opposite "low-high-low" wave trains at 500 hPa height are observed in the middle and high latitudes in the WH-EA pattern at 500 hPa height,meaning precipitation increases in WNWC and decreases in ENWC.Thus,the atmosphere circulation situation with two wave train types can support both the precipitation seesaw phenomenon and the opposite variation between MI and WI.Moreover,the seesaw phenomenon is shown to be related to the separate or joint effects of the South Asian High,ENSO and the plateau heating on the common but opposite effect on the summer monsoon and the westerlies,in which the South Asian High probably plays a more critical role.This study could deepen the scientific understanding of precipitation mechanisms and improve the weather forecast technology in Northwest China during the flood season.     

Preliminary reconstruction of the desert and sandy land distributions in China since the last interglacial period

The desert and sandy land are the products of arid climate. The spatial distribution of modern deserts and sandy land in China and their relation to climate show following characteristics: arid and hyper-arid desert zones, at isohyet of less than 200 mm, are dominated by mobile dunes; semi-arid steppe and arid desert steppe with the precipitation between 200–400 mm, are dominated by semi-fixed and fixed sand dunes; the precipitation of sub-humid forest grassland and humid forest zones with scattered fixed sand land is higher than 400 mm. With this as reference, in combination with considerable amount of paleoclimatic data in desert regions and adjacent regions, the distributions of desert and sandy land in China during the last interglacial period, the last glacial maximum (LGM), and the Holocene megathermal, were preliminarily reconstructed. The results compared with that of today show that the distribution of desert and sandy land in China was greatly dwindled during last interglacial period, and the mobile dune area was about two-thirds of that of today’s, but greatly expanded during LGM. However, the dwindling area of desert and sandy land in the Holocene megathermal was smaller than that in the last interglacial period. The forcing mechanism was mainly related to the changes of East Asian winter and summer monsoon, south-northward swing of the westerlies and the variations of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau monsoon intensity caused by global climate changes during the cold and warm intervals since the last interglacial period.     

Review of Chinese atmospheric science research over the past 70 years: Climate and climate change

Climate and climate change have always been a research focus of atmospheric sciences. This paper summaries research efforts, achievements and international contributions of the Chinese scientific community on climate and climate change over the past 70 years. The review is based on papers published officially in national or international scientific journals,and is organized to cover six aspects:(1) general climate studies;(2) impact of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau;(3) impact of the East Asian monsoon;(4) influences of teleconnection oscillation and westerlies;(5) climate dynamics and development of climate models; and(6) climate change. It is, however, to be noted that the present review can not be considered as an exhaustive one, since there is a huge body of literature in the field.     

The East Asian Monsoon since the Last Glacial Maximum: Evidence from geological records in northern China

The impact of global warming on the climate of northern China has been investigated intensively, and the behavior of the East Asian monsoon during previous intervals of climatic warming may provide insight into future changes. In this study, we use paleovegetation records from loess and lake sediments in the marginal zone of the East Asian summer monsoon(EASM) to reconstruct the EASM during the interval of warming from the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM) to the Holocene. The results show that during the LGM, desert steppe or dry steppe dominated much of northern China; in addition, the southeastern margin of the deserts east of the Helan Mountains had a distribution similar to that of the present-day, or was located slightly further south, due to the cold and dry climate caused by a strengthened East Asian winter monsoon(EAWM) and weakened EASM. During the last deglaciation, with the strengthening of the EASM and concomitant weakening of the EAWM, northern China gradually became humid. However, this trend was interrupted by abrupt cooling during the Heinrich 1(H1) and Younger Dryas(YD) events. The EASM intensified substantially during the Holocene, and the monsoon rain belt migrated at least 300 km northwestwards, which led to the substantial shrinking of the desert area in the central and eastern part of northern China, and to the large expansion of plants favored by warm and humid conditions. Paleoclimatic records from the marginal zone of the EASM all show that the EASM reached its peak in the mid-Holocene, and past global climatic warming significantly strengthened the EASM, thereby greatly improving the ecological environment in northern China. Thus, northern China is expected to become wetter as global warming continues. Finally, high resolution Holocene vegetation records are sparse compared with the numerous records on the orbital timescale, and there is a need for more studies of Holocene climatic variability on the centennial-to-decadal scale.