A unified model for the formation and distribution of both conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs

The discovery and large-scale exploration of unconventional oil/gas resources since 1980s have been considered as the most important advancement in the history of petroleum geology;that has not only changed the balance of supply and demand in the global energy market,but also improved our understanding of the formation mechanisms and distribution characteristics of oil/gas reservoirs.However,what is the difference of conventional and unconventional resources and why they always related to each other in petroliferous basins is not clear.As the differences and correlations between unconventional and conventional resources are complex challenging issues and very critical for resources assessment and hydrocarbon exploration,this paper focused on studying the relationship of formations and distributions among different oil/gas reservoirs.Drilling results of 12,237 exploratory wells in 6 representative petroliferous basins of China and distribution characteristics for 52,926 oil/gas accumulations over the world were applied to clarify the formation conditions and genetic relations of different oil/gas reservoirs in a petroliferous basin,and then to establish a unified model to address the differences and correlations of conventional and unconventional reservoirs.In this model,conventional reservoirs formed in free hydrocarbon dynamic field with high porosity and permeability located above the boundary of hydrocarbon buoyancy-driven accumulation depth limit.Unconventional tight reservoirs formed in confined hydrocarbon dynamic field with low porosity and permeability located between hydrocarbon buoyancy-driven accumulation depth limit and hydrocarbon accumulation depth limit.Shale oil/gas reservoirs formed in the bound hydrocarbon dynamic field with low porosity and ultra-low permeability within the source rock layers.More than 75%of proved reserves around the world are discovered in the free hydrocarbon dynamic field,which is estimated to contain only 10%of originally generated hydrocarbons.Most of undiscovered resources distributed in the confined hydrocarbon dynamic field and the bound hydrocarbon dynamic field,which contains 90%of original generated hydrocarbons,implying a reasonable and promising area for future hydrocarbon explorations.The buried depths of hydrocarbon dynamic fields become shallow with the increase of heat flow,and the remaining oil/gas resources mainly exist in the deep area of“cold basin”with low geothermal gradient.Lithology changing in the hydrocarbon dynamic field causes local anomalies in the oil/gas dynamic mechanism,leading to the local formation of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs in the free hydrocarbon dynamic field or the occurrence of oil/gas enrichment sweet points with high porosity and permeability in the confined hydrocarbon dynamic field.The tectonic movements destroy the medium conditions and oil/gas components,which leads to the transformation of conventional oil/gas reservoirs formed in free hydrocarbon dynamic field to unconventional ones or unconventional ones formed in confined and bound hydrocarbon dynamic fields to conventional ones.     

Geological features and hydrocarbon accumulation in the Xinken oil field, Tarim Basin

Recently,a large-scale Ordovician oil and gas pool has been discovered in Xinken,north of the Tarim Basin,and it has strongly heterogeneous reservoirs and complicated fluid distribution.Through analyzing oil,gas and water samples collected from this area,in combination of field production and testing data,this study reveals that the Xinken oil pool contains dominantly normal oil characterized by low viscosity,low sulphur,and high wax.It has a low content of natural gas,which presents typical characteristics of wet gas and is oil-associated gas.Oil-gas correlation shows that the oil was from the Middle-Upper Ordovician source rocks and the charge and accumulation of oil and gas took place in the Late Hercynian Period.Controlled by paleogeomorphology,sedimentary facies,ancient karstification,faults,and other factors in the Caledonian Period,the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs are dominated by dissolved pores,cavities and fractures.The reservoir body of fractures and cavities is distributed in the shape of strip and laminate along faults and excellent reservoirs are mostly in the range of 70–100 m below the top of the Yijianfang Formation.As a whole,the Xinken oil pool is a fracture-cavity pool controlled by interbedded karst reservoirs and is a complex composed of stacked karst fractures and cavities of various sizes.It contains oil in large areas horizontally,which is quasi-laminated in distribution,and the accumulation of oil and gas is controlled by the distribution and development degree of the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs.The study shows that this area has abundant resources and a great exploration potential for oil and gas.     

Types of Karst-fractured and Porous Reservoirs in China＇s Carbonates and the Nature of the Tahe Oilfield in the Tarim Basin

Almost all the oil and gas reservoirs developed in marine sedimentary strata of China have undergone processes of multi-phase reservoir formation and later modification. The irregular reservoirs are classified into three types as the Naxi, Tahe and Renqiu ones, increasing successively in the development degree of karstificated pores and fissures and the connection degree of independent reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the unity in the fluid feature, pressure and oil-gaswater interface also increases successively from the Naxi to the Renqiu type. The main body of Ordovician reservoirs of the Tahe Oilfield in the Tarim Basin is a network pool rather than a stratified, massive, stratigraphically-unconformed or weathering-crust one. The fluid nature of oil, gas and water, the interface positions and the pressures, as well as the dynamic conditions of fluids within the reservoirs during the production are all different from those in stratified or massive oil and gas reservoirs. Carbonates in the Akekule uplift and the Tahe Oilfield are assemblages of various types of reservoirs, which have an overall oH-bearing potential and obvious uneven distribution. Testing and producing tests are the major means to evaluate this type of reservoirs and acid fracturing improvement is a key link in petroleum exploration and development.     

Geologic Characteristics of Gas Reservoirs in West Sichuan Foreland Basin

The foreland basin in West Sichuan is a tectonic unit that has undergone multi-periods tectonic movements of Indosinian-Yanshanian-Himalayan. Since late Triassic, it has been in a passive subsidence environment controlled by basin margin mountain systems and by the compression with abundant sediment sources. With the complex geologic setting, the main geologic characteristics of natural gas reservoir are listed as following： （1） Source rocks are coal-bearing mud and shale series with high to over maturity, and long and progressive hydrocarbon generation-displacement period. The key accumulation period is middle-late Yanshanian epoch. （2） There are three gas-bearing systems vertically, each of which has different reservoir mechanism, main-controlled factors and distribution law, so the exploration thoughts and techniques are also different. （3） Undergoing multi-period generation-migration-accumulation, oil and gas have encountered multi-period modification or destruction, and gas accumulation overpass multiple tectonic periods. So the trap type is complicated and dominated by combination traps. Because the main accumulation period of natural gas is early and the reservoir encountered the modification of strong Himalayan movement, there is great difference in the fullness degree of gas reservoirs and complicated gas-water relation. （4） Reservoir is tight to very tight, but reservoirs of relatively high quality developed under the super tight setting. （5） The key techniques for oil and gas exploration in west Sichuan foreland basin are the prediction of relatively favorable reservoirs, fractures and gas bearing; and the key techniques for oil and gas development are how to improve the penetration rate, reservoir protection and modification.     

Dynamic Field Division of Hydrocarbon Migration,Accumulation and Hydrocarbon Enrichment Rules in Sedimentary Basins

Hydrocarbon distribution rules in the deep and shallow parts of sedimentary basins are considerably different, particularly in the following four aspects. First, the critical porosity for hydrocarbon migration is much lower in the deep parts of basins: at a depth of 7000 m, hydrocarbons can accumulate only in rocks with porosity less than 5%. However, in the shallow parts of basins (i.e., depths of around 1000 m), hydrocarbon can accumulate in rocks only when porosity is over 20%. Second, hydrocarbon reservoirs tend to exhibit negative pressures after hydrocarbon accumulation at depth, with a pressure coefficient less than 0.7. However, hydrocarbon reservoirs at shallow depths tend to exhibit high pressure after hydrocarbon accumulation. Third, deep reservoirs tend to exhibit characteristics of oil (–gas)–water inversion, indicating that the oil (gas) accumulated under the water. However, the oil (gas) tends to accumulate over water in shallow reservoirs. Fourth, continuous unconventional tight hydrocarbon reservoirs are distributed widely in deep reservoirs, where the buoyancy force is not the primary dynamic force and the caprock is not involved during the process of hydrocarbon accumulation. Conversely, the majority of hydrocarbons in shallow regions accumulate in traps with complex structures. The results of this study indicate that two dynamic boundary conditions are primarily responsible for the above phenomena: a lower limit to the buoyancy force and the lower limit of hydrocarbon accumulation overall, corresponding to about 10%–12% porosity and irreducible water saturation of 100%, respectively.     

Reservoir geochemistry of the Tazhong oilfield in the Tarim Basin, China, Part I. Geochemical characteristics and genetic classification of crude oils

1 Introduction Since the 1990’s of the 20th century, oil & gas geochemists have shifted their research focus on hydrocarbon source rocks in the past to that on reservoir rocks and oil reservoirs at present; their research field has been expanded from oil & gas exploration to the assessment of oil reservoirs and production & management. Therefore, reservoir geochemistry as a branch disciplinary of organic geochemistry is now attracting great concern of many oil & gas explorers and oilfield en…     

Reserve and Pressure Change of Paleo-oil Reservoir in Puguang Area,Sichuan Basin

The Puguang (普光) gas field is the largest gas field found in marine carbonates in China.The Feixiangnan (飞仙关) and Changxing (长兴) reservoirs are two such reservoirs that had been buried to a depth of about 7 000 m and experienced maximum temperature of up to 220 ℃ before uplift to the present-day depth of 5 000-5 500 m,with present-day thermal maturity between 2.0% and 3.0% equivalent vitrinite reflectance (Ro).Bitumen staining is ubiquitous throughout the Feixianguan and Changxing formations,with the greatest concentrations in zones with the highest porosity and permeability,suggesting that the solid bitumen is the result of in-situ cracking of oil.According to the distribution of bitumen in the core,the paleo-oil boundary can be approximately determined.The paleo-oil resource is calculated to be about (0.61-0.92)×109 t (average 0.76×109 t),and the cracked gas volume is about (380.80-595.80)×109 m3 (average 488.30×109 m3); at least 58.74% of cracked gas is preserved in Puguang gas field.The study area experienced not only the cracking of oil but also thermochemical sulfate reduction,resulting in large quantities of nonhydrocarbon gas,with about 15.2% H2S and 8.3% CO2,together with the structural reconfiguration.During the whole process,the great change of volume and pressure compels the PVTsim modeling software to simulate various factors,such as the cracking of oil,the thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) and the tectonic uplift in both isolated and open geological conditions,respectively.The results show that although any one of these factors may induce greater pressure changes in an isolated system than in a closed system,the oil cracking and C3+involving TSR lead to overpressure during the early stage of gas reservoir.Therefore,the tectonic uplift and the methane-dominated TSR,as well as the semi-open system contribute to the reducing pressure resulting in the current normal formation pressure.     

A Study of Sedimentary Environment and Reservoir Quality of the Carboniferous Donghe Sandstonein the Tarim Basin

Very thick, fine-grained quartzose sandstone of the Lower Carboniferous (called the Donghe sandstone) was discovered in Donghe-1 well in the Tarim basin. Highly-productive commercial oil and gas flows were obtained when a well completion test was conducted. This important discovery proved that the quartzose sandstone is a prospecting target with good prospects. After that, other two paying oil and gas flows were found in the Lower Carboniferous in the Tazhong-4 and Tazhong-10 structures (Tazhong means central Tarim), equivalent to the Donghe sandstone. The Tazhong-4 structural oil field is the biggest oil field ever discovered. Therefore it is of guiding importance in oil and gas exploration to deepen the study of sedimentary and reservoir features and the sedimentary environment of the Donghe sandstone and to build a sedimentary model in order to understand the reservoir distribution pattern.     

Discovery and Significance of High CH4 Primary Fluid Inclusions in Reservoir Volcanic Rocks of the Songliao Basin, NE China

Comparing compositions of the fluid inclusions in volcanic rocks to the contents and isotopes of the gases in corresponding volcanic reservoirs using microthermometry, Raman microspectroscopy and mass spectrum analysis, we found that： （1） up to 82 mole% methane exists in the primary inclusions hosted in the reservoir volcanic rocks; （2） high CH4 inclusions recognized in the volcanic rocks correspond to CH4-bcaring CO2 reservoirs that are rich in helium and with a high ^3He/^4He ratio and which show reversed order of 813C in alkane; （3） in gas reservoirs of such abiotic methane （〉80%） and a mix of CH4 and CO2, the enclosed content of CH4 in the volcanic inclusions is usually below 42 mole%, and the reversed order of δ^13C in alkane is sometimes irregular in the corresponding gas pools; （4） a glassy inclusion with a homogeneous temperature over 900℃ also contains a small portion of CH4 although predominantly CO2. This affinity between gas pool and content of inclusion in the same volcanic reservoirs demonstrates that magma-originated gases, both CH4 and CO2, have contributed significantly to the corresponding gas pools and that the assumed hydrocarbon budget of the bulk earth might be much larger than conventionally supposed.     

储层多孔介质波动渗流力学研究进展与挑战

随着石油工业对低渗、特低渗、稠油、超稠油、小断块、薄油层及高含水等复杂油藏开发的不断加强,波动强化采油技术作为一项高效低成本、不伤害储层、不污染环境的储层增产增注新技术,具有广阔的发展与应用前景.基于对国内外相关成果的广泛调研,揭示了弹性波作用下储层渗流动力学机制是提高波动强化采油技术矿场应用效果的关键,阐述了在弹性波作用下波动渗流力学与传统孔隙介质弹性波传播理论和经典油水渗流力学之间的本质差异,分析了定量描述储层多孔介质波动渗流动力学机理与规律的主要难点,总结了储层波动渗流力学研究的最新进展,展望了波动渗流力学理论研究需要进一步解决的重点问题.      

南苏门达腊盆地油气地质特征与勘探潜力分析

以广泛收集的数据资料为依据,运用含油气盆地理论方法,总结南苏门达腊盆地构造沉积演化和油气地质特征,探讨油气分布规律,分析其勘探潜力。结果显示,南苏门达腊盆地是新生代弧后裂谷盆地,经历了裂前、裂谷、过渡、坳陷和反转等5个演化阶段。主力烃源岩为过渡期沉积的炭质页岩和煤层,储集层主要为上渐新统砂岩、下中新统灰岩和裂缝基底。油气总体呈现"深层气、中层油和气、浅层油"的分布特征,主要富集于构造及构造复合相关圈闭中。断裂、储层发育有利相带和凹中隆是控制油气分布的主要因素。盆地油气成藏条件良好,具有较好的勘探潜力。生烃灶周边断裂发育的斜坡、古隆起是有利的勘探区,凹陷内的岩性、地层圈闭也是有利的勘探目标,应加大对此类圈闭的研究和勘探力度。     

塔中北斜坡富油气区油气分布规律与富集主控因素研究

塔里木盆地塔中北斜坡奥陶系油气藏类型多样、油气性质变化大、油气水分布复杂。通过对塔中北斜坡大量单井及其生产动态的分析解剖,结合分析化验资料,深入探讨了富油气区的流体分布特征、断裂发育特征、储层差异性以及典型高产井和出水井的对比,揭示了油气分布规律与控制因素。鹰山组顶部的风化壳型不整合面在垂向上控制了储层的发育深度范围和储层质量;平面上储层的非均质性是导致油气分布差异的重要原因。断裂引起的局部高差对流体聚集存在明显影响,使断裂上盘高部位更倾向于富油气,并发现断裂对储层改造强烈,特别是走滑断裂作为油气运移通道对油气分布具有重要的控制作用,决定了不同区域的古油藏在晚喜山期遭受气侵的强度,控制了不同相态油气藏的分布;奥陶系鹰山组上部发育的致密段对古油藏的保存具有积极的作用。该认识对相似地区碳酸盐岩油气富集规律研究及勘探开发具重要的参考价值。     

巴西坎波斯盆地和桑托斯盆地油气分布差异及主控因素

巴西坎波斯盆地和桑托斯盆地均为典型的被动陆缘盆地。随着勘探程度的增加和近年来在桑托斯盆地深水区盐下油气的重大发现,坎波斯盆地和桑托斯盆地之间的构造-沉积演化和油气地质特征的差异性越来越明显。通过对坎波斯盆地和桑托斯盆地区域地质特征和油气成藏条件差异性的比较,总结出两个盆地油气分布特征的截然不同。研究表明,盐窗比较发育的坎波斯盆地中已发现的油气主要富集于盐上浊积砂岩,而连续盐岩发育的桑托斯盆地已发现的油气则主要富集于盐下湖相碳酸盐岩。对于盐下层系,连续分布的盐岩和圣保罗高地的发育控制了盐下层系油气的分布;对于盐上层系,盐相关构造的发育则为油气垂向运移提供了有利通道,从而控制了盐上油气藏的形成与分布。     

祁连山冻土区天然气水合物伴生碳酸盐C、O同位素特征及其地质意义

伴生碳酸盐矿物在海底与天然气水合物伴生是一种普遍现象,但在陆上冻土区中报道较少。以近两年在祁连山冻土区发现天然气水合物伴生的碳酸盐矿物为研究对象,根据对含碳酸盐样品的显微镜观察及矿物分析,确定了伴生碳酸盐的矿物种属及赋存状态。按碳酸盐矿物组成及地质产状的不同,其赋存状态分成4种类型,即白色薄层状、烟灰色菱形晶簇状、深灰色薄壳状、微细浸染状。根据不同赋存形态碳酸盐的C、O同位素特征,认为烟灰色菱形晶簇状方解石或呈(云烟状)微晶方解石可能与天然气水合物分解有关。碳酸盐C、O同位素随深度变化特征表明在一定深度处可能存在着烃类物质的活动,即天然气水合物分解,导致碳酸盐的矿物生成。     

银额盆地哈日凹陷多类型油气藏共生特征及其成藏机理

近年来,银根—额济纳旗盆地哈日凹陷发现了多种类型油气藏,证实其有较好的油气勘探前景,但该凹陷油气地质条件极为复杂,特别是对多类型油气藏的共生特征及其成藏机理认识不足,限制了对油气分布规律的科学预测,制约了油气勘探的进程.基于对各类型油气藏的剖析,探讨多类型油气藏共生特征及其成藏机理,预测油气分布,分析勘探方向,以期为该...     

Sources of fluids and gases expelled at cold seeps offshore Georgia, eastern Black Sea

Four seep sites located within an ∼20 km² area offshore Georgia (Batumi seep area, Pechori Mound, Iberia Mound, and Colkheti Seep) show characteristic differences with respect to element concentrations, and oxygen, hydrogen, strontium, and chlorine isotope signatures in pore waters, as well as impregnation of sediments with petroleum and hydrocarbon potential. All seep sites have active gas seepage, near surface authigenic carbonates and gas hydrates. Cokheti Seep, Iberia Mound, and Pechori Mound are characterized by oil-stained sediments and gas seepage decoupled from deep fluid advection and bottom water intrusion induced by gas bubble release. Pechori Mound is further characterized by deep fluid advection of lower salinity pore fluids. The Pechori Mound pore fluids are altered by mineral/water reactions at elevated temperatures (between 60 and 110 °C) indicated by heavier oxygen and lighter chlorine isotope values, distinct Li and B enrichment, and K depletion. Strontium isotope ratios indicate that fluids originate from late Oligocene strata. This finding is supported by the occurrence of hydrocarbon impregnations within the sediments. Furthermore, light hydrocarbons and high molecular weight impregnates indicate a predominant thermogenic origin for the gas and oil at Pechori Mound, Iberia Mound, and Colkheti Seep. C₁₅₊ hydrocarbons at the oil seeps are allochtonous, whereas those at the Batumi seep area are autochthonous. The presence of oleanane, an angiosperm biomarker, suggests that the hydrocarbon source rocks belong to the Maikopian Formation. In summary, all investigated seep sites show a high hydrocarbon potential and hydrocarbons of Iberia Mound, Colkheti Seep, and Pechori Mound are predominantly of thermogenic origin. However, only at the latter seep site advection of deep pore fluids is indicated.     

南海南部海域曾母盆地油气地质特征

曾母盆地是位于南海南部的一个大型新生代沉积盆地,具有面积大、沉积速率快、沉积厚度大的特点。国内外油气勘探和研究表明,曾母盆地具有十分良好的油气地质条件,主要发育渐新统海陆过渡相炭质页岩、煤层、海相泥岩和下—中中新统海相泥岩两大套烃源岩,以及渐新统—中新统砂岩和中—上中新统灰岩或礁灰岩两大套储层。康西坳陷和东巴林坚坳陷为盆地两个主要生烃区。纵向上,油气主要赋存于下中新统砂岩和中上中新统碳酸盐岩,前者以含油为主,后者以含气为主;横向上,曾母盆地具有南油北气的特征,气田主要分布在东部南康台地上和西部斜坡上,油田主要赋存在巴林坚地区。油气分布具有明显的分区性,主要与盆地不同构造单元构造和沉积作用的差异性相关。     

冷泉流体沉积碳酸盐岩的地质地球化学特征

冷泉流体是指来自海底沉积界面之下的低温流体以喷涌和渗漏方式注入盆地, 并产生系列的物理和化学及生物作用, 这种作用及产物称为冷泉?它是继洋中脊以盆下源中高温流体的热泉被发现和研究之后的又一个新的盆地流体沉积领域?日前研究较多的是以水? 碳氢化合物 (天然气和石油) ? 硫化氢? 细粒沉积物为主要成分, 温度与海水相近的流体, 广泛发育于活动和被动大陆边缘斜坡海底?冷泉流体沉积体系发育高密度的化学自养生物群, 以碳酸盐岩和天然气水合物为主, 有少量的硫化物和硫酸盐等?冷泉碳酸盐岩的产状有丘? 结核? 硬底? 烟囱? 胶结物和小脉等, 以化学自养生物碎屑和多期次的自生碳酸盐胶结物组成的生物丘最为常见, 它在物质来源? 形成环境? 形成作用等方面与传统来源于海水碳的碳酸盐岩建隆不同, 用术语 C h e r m o h e r m 表示, 以区别于传统海水碳酸盐岩建隆术语b i o h e r m s ? l i t h o h e r m s ? p s e u d o b i o h e r m s 和 b i o s t r o m e s ?地层中石化的化学自养生物丘常是含有大量底栖生物化石的碳酸盐岩建隆产于深水相沉积地层中, 在沉积环境和相分析上出现纵向和横向的不连续, 甚至出现反常现象?矿物以镁方解石? 白云石和文石为主, 与传统的碳酸盐岩相似, 在地球化学组成上最大的区别是冷泉流体沉积碳酸盐岩的碳来源于冷泉体系中的细菌生物成因碳, 具有特别负的碳同位素值?冷泉在海底主要沿构造带和高渗透地层呈线性群, 或围绕泥火山或盐底劈顶部呈圆形或不规则状冷泉群分布,或以海底地形低凹处和峡谷转向处呈孤立冷泉形式产出?冷泉流体以沉积建造流体为主?上覆快速堆积? 成岩压实和胶结作用? 构造挤压和变形作用? 深部的后生作用和成岩作用? 海底沉积物中的天然气水合物分解作用是建造流体向上运移进入海底成为冷泉的驱动力?冷泉碳酸盐岩的沉积作用主要有胶结作用? 充填作用和生物化学沉积作用?冷泉流体中的碳主要是以甲烷为主的碳氢化合物形式存在, 经微生物作用转变为 C O₂ ,最终形成冷泉碳酸盐岩?