Analysis of soil effects and distribution of damage from the Pyrgos 1993 (Greece) earthquake

Summary On 26 March, 1993, a moderate magnitude earthquake (M _s=5.5) occurred at 3 km epicentral distance from the town of Pyrgos, in Southern Greece, causing extensive damage to masonry houses. To explain the variability of seismic intensity over the town and to propose measures against future seismic activity, a microzonation study was undertaken which combined geological, geophysical and geotechnical investigations, site specific analyses of seismic ground response and detailed recording of structural damage. The analytical predictions of ground response are correlated to soil conditions and then used to identify (micro-)zones of sites with similar seismic response. Furthermore, they are compared to quantitative estimates of damage distribution over the town. It is concluded that the peak ground acceleration, normalized against the input peak seismic acceleration, is a function of the local soil conditions as well as the seismic excitation characteristics. Hence, it cannot be defined uniquely at a site, without reference to the seismic excitation. However, the normalized peak ground velocity and the acceleration response spectra are mainly functions of the soil conditions and can be used as criteria for the practical definition of (micro-)zones. The distribution of damage in various parts of the town is at least partially attributable to local soil effects. The small epicentral distance of the earthquake, connected with the direction of the fault rupture, as well as the quality and techniques of construction, are additional factors that may have influenced the extent and distribution of damage.     

TEM拟地震解释中的反射系数确定

在反射波地震勘探中,能观测到输入大地中的地震波在介质的分界面上的反射,这些反射组成的时间序列就是地震记录,而记录上所显示的反射序列可以看作是地下介质的脉冲响应。TEM电磁波场源同样存在二次波和透射波,从电磁波和弹性波在介质中传播的相似性角度认识,存在二次场拟地震解释的条件。其中,对它们的反射系数函数的对比分析,是认识两者有机地联系的关键。本文就是基于上述理论,运用解释地震资料的方法解释电磁法资料。      

A three-dimensional oblique incidence method based on stress time-history functions of seismic body waves

This paper presents a three-dimensional oblique incidence method based on stress time-history functions of seismic body waves. This method realizes the three-dimensional oblique incidence of a single body wave phase or superposed multiple phases, which considers the earthquake action in the analysis of the slope seismic response. To implement this method, first, the spatial relationship between slope and incident seismic wave rays is described, and the direction of incident seismic waves is defined with two parameters: the azimuth angle \(\alpha\), which reflects the azimuth of epicenter; and the incident angle \(\theta\), which is a concentrated expression of the hypocentral depth and epicentral distance. Second, at the bottom boundary of the slope numerical model, the vibration starting time of each node excited by an oblique incident seismic wave is calculated. By considering vibration time sequence, the successive disturbance of rock and soil medium at the bottom of the slope is achieved. Then the stress time-history functions of six body wave phases are derived. Numerical simulation results of the x demonstrate the effectiveness, applicability and necessity of the proposed method.     

地下洞室群随机地震响应研究中传递函数的应用探讨

在证明随机响应的统计参数可以用传递函数进行直接表达的前提下,将传递函数引入地下洞室群随机地震响应研究中,对白鹤滩水电工程13#机组剖面地下洞群进行了随机地震响应分析,并对之进行了地震动力可靠度的探讨。结果表明：较之常规方法,基于传递函数的方法除可得到洞室群的随机地震响应以外,还可同时得到洞室群的地震响应频谱特性,并可以直接利用传递函数得到确定性地震动输入下洞室群的响应值进行验证,显示对问题的研究具有更加深刻的优势;将所得到的随机地震响应结果与基于传递函数的确定性估算结果,与实际时程计算得到的确定性结果比较,吻合良好;首次采用超越破坏理论对地下洞室群进行地震动力可靠度分析的可行性,为地下工程抗震可靠度计算中如何以动力方式考虑地震荷载的随机性提供了一些新思路。     

A BEM investigation on the influence of underground cavities on the seismic response of canyons

Two-dimensional site effects caused by cavities under topographical functions can considerably impact the seismic reaction of the ground surface. Due to the complexity of scattering issues by topographical features above subterranean cavity, few studies have been done in this field. In the present study, the seismic response of semi-sine-shaped canyons above a subterranean cavity (hole) of different dimensions, depths and locations is examined. The medium is assumed to have a linear elastic constitutive behavior exposed to vertically propagating incident SV and P waves. All calculations are performed using the direct boundary element technique in the time domain. It is observed that a cavity below a canyon can considerably change the ground response of the surface in different periodic bands. The seismic interaction between canyon and cavity with respect to various geometrical parameters will lead to different amplification patterns in the center and edge of the canyon. One of the most important results is the increase in amplification of long periods compared with the case of a canyon without cavity. Moreover, parametric research shows the fact that the cavity detail and canyon height, the ratio of cavity to the canyon size and cavity location impact on the seismic amplification of the canyon surface. Finally, spectral amplification coefficients of the canyon surface led by the cavity are reported for different cases of the canyon–cavity interaction.     

基于MEMS与LwIP的煤矿三分量地震数据采集系统

针对当前煤矿地震数据采集传输系统中数据传输实时性差,数据传输量有限的问题,以及数据采集需要满足多波宽频的要求,设计了基于MEMS与LwIP的煤矿三分量全波地震数据采集系统。该系统由MEMS三分量检波器、数据采集单元、高性能防爆路由器、高性能嵌入式主机及采集控制软件、主机监控软件构成。采用MEMS加速度芯片VS1002作为检波器芯体,利用其高灵敏度、宽频带响应等特点;主机监控软件完成对全波采集单元监控、管理及简单的数据处理功能;全波数据采集单元实现了三分量地震信号的数据拾取、转换、存储和数据输出;系统采用分布式控制方式,可实现系统的灵活组合与拆分,提高了采集信号的质量,增强了在煤矿中的适用范围。实验结果表明:与常规地震采集系统相比,本系统具有抗干扰力强,响应频带宽的特点,可在恶劣环境条件下捕捉到频带较宽的地震信号。      

表层土剪切波速的不确定性对地表设计谱平台值的影响

土层剪切波速对地表反应谱有重要的影响。选取构建了不同场地类别的235个场地地震反应模型,人工合成了12条强弱及频谱特性不同的加速度时程,运用一维土层地震反应的等效线性化波动方法,研究了不同地震动输入下表层土剪切波速的不确定性对设计谱平台值的影响,统计给出了表层土剪切波速的变异率与地表设计反应谱平台值间的经验公式。结果表明:地表设计反应谱平台值与表层土剪切波速的变异率呈负相关关系,即随表层土剪切波速变异率的增大而减小;不同地震波输入条件下各类场地类别地表设计谱平台高度与表层土剪切波速变异率的数学模型为一阶指数函数。     

A study of the seismic response of the city of Benevento (Southern Italy) through a combined analysis of seismological and geological data

A previous analysis [Improta, L., G. Di Giulio, and A. Rovelli (2005). Variations of local seismic response in Benevento (Southern Italy) using earthquakes and ambient noise recordings, J. Seism. 9, 191–210.] of small magnitude earthquakes recorded at 12 sites within the city of Benevento has stressed the significant role played by near-surface geology in causing variability of the ground motion. In this paper, we extend the study of the seismic response from 12 sites to the entire urban area. Based on inferences from the comparison at the 12 sites between earthquake and ambient vibration results, we have collected ambient noise at about 100 sites within the city, intensifying measurements across the main shallow geological variations. We use borehole data to interpret ambient noise H/V spectral ratios in terms of near-surface geology comparing H/V curves to theoretical transfer functions of 1D models along five well-constrained profiles.

On the basis of geological, geotechnical, and seismic data, we identify three main typologies of seismic response in the city. Each type of response is associated to zones sharing common soil conditions and similar soil classes according to building codes for seismic design. Moreover, we find that the spatial variation of the seismic response in the ancient town area is consistent with the damage pattern produced by a very destructive, well-documented historical earthquake that struck the city in 1688, causing MCS intensity of IX–X in Benevento.

Finally, we use ground motions recorded during the experiment by Improta et al. [Improta, L., G. Di Giulio, and A. Rovelli (2005). Variations of local seismic response in Benevento (Southern Italy) using earthquakes and ambient noise recordings, J. Seism. 9, 191–210.] to generate synthetic seismograms of moderate to strong (Mw 5.7, Molise 2002 and Ms 6.9, 1980 Irpinia) earthquakes. We calibrate the random summation technique by Ordaz et al. [Ordaz, M., J. Arboleda, and S.K. Singh (1995). A scheme of random summation of an Empirical Green's Function to estimate ground motions for future large earthquakes, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 85, 1635–1647.] using recordings of these earthquakes available in Benevento. After a satisfactory fit between observed and synthetic seismograms, we compute response spectra at different sites and speculate on effects of the geology class at large level of shaking, including soil nonlinearity. We find that large discrepancies from design spectra prescribed by seismic codes can occur for a wide sector of Benevento, especially for periods < 0.5 s.     

不同边界和地基条件的大型滑坡体动力响应分析

动力有限元计算结果的真实性与模型边界条件的设置和地震波输入高程的选择有着密切的关系。采用动力有限元时程分析法对不同边界和地基条件的大型滑坡体进行了数值计算,在此基础上分析了地基辐射阻尼和地震加速度输入高程对滑坡体动力响应的影响,以及大型滑坡体的地震响应规律。结果表明,上田镇大型滑坡体在动力作用下上部的位移响应值大,剪应力小,而下部则相反;黏弹性边界能有效地降低滑坡体的地震反应,而且地震输入高程的不同对滑坡体的地震响应会产生相当大的影响,地基辐射阻尼和地震波输入的模拟合理性直接影响滑坡体动力分析的客观性。     

Methodology for benefit–cost analysis of seismic codes

A number of high-profile seismic events have occurred in recent years, with a wide variation in the resulting economic damage and loss of life. This variation has been attributed in part to the stringency of seismic building codes implemented in different regions. Using the HAZUS Earthquake Model, a benefit?Ccost analysis was performed on varying levels of standard buildings codes for Haiti and Puerto Rico. The methodology computes expected loss assuming a Poisson event process with lognormally distributed event magnitude and idealized damage?Cmagnitude response functions. The event frequency and magnitude distributions are estimated from the historical record, while the damage functions are fit using HAZUS simulation results for events with systematically varying magnitudes and different seismic code levels. To validate the approach, a single-event analysis was conducted using alternative building codes and mean magnitude earthquakes. A probabilistic analysis was then used to evaluate the long-term expected value for alternative levels of building codes. To account for the relationship between lives saved and economic loss, the implicit cost of saving a life is computed for each code option. It was found that in the two areas studied, the expected loss of life was reduced the most by use of high seismic building code levels, but lower levels of seismic building code were more cost-effective when considering only building damages and the costs for code implementation. The methodology presented is meant to provide a basic framework for the future development of an economic-behavioral model for code adoption.     

Scales of Reservoir Heterogeneities and Impact of Seismic Resolution on Geostatistical Integration

Seismic measurements may be used in geostatistical techniques for estimation and simulation of petrophysical properties such as porosity. The good correlation between seismic and rock properties provides a basis for these techniques. Seismic data have a wide spatial coverage not available in log or core data. However, each seismic measurement has a characteristic response function determined by the source-receiver geometry and signal bandwidth. The image response of the seismic measurement gives a filtered version of the true velocity image. Therefore the seismic image cannot reflect exactly the true seismic velocity at all scales of spatial heterogeneities present in the Earth. The seismic response function can be approximated conveniently in the spatial spectral domain using the Born approximation. How the seismic image response affects the estimation of variogram. and spatial scales and its impact on geostatistical results is the focus of this paper. Limitations of view angles and signal bandwidth not only smooth the seismic image, increasing the variogram range, but also can introduce anisotropic spatial structures into the image. The seismic data are enhanced by better characterizing and quantifying these attributes. As an exercise, examples of seismically assisted cokriging and cosimulation of porosity between wells are presented.     

Lessons learned from two case histories of seismic microzonation in Italy

The prediction of the variability of the seismic ground motion in a given built-up area is considered an effective tool to plan appropriate urban development, to undertake actions on seismic risk mitigation and to understand the damage pattern caused by a strong-motion event. The procedures for studying the seismic response and the seismic microzonation of an urban area are well established; nevertheless, some controversial points still exists and are discussed here. In this paper, the selection of a reference input motion, the construction of a subsoil model and the seismic response analysis procedures are discussed in detail, based on the authors’ experience in two Italian case histories: the seismic microzonation of the city of Benevento, which was a predictive study, and the simulation of seismic response and damage distribution in the village of San Giuliano di Puglia, which was a retrospective analysis.     

传递函数在场地振动台模型试验中的应用研究

利用场地大型振动台试验,基于传递函数理论,计算得到场地的相对传递函数和绝对传递函数,并对两类传递函数特征以及利用两类传递函数计算场地动力特性参数的差异性进行了对比,并对采用传递函数进行场地频域动力响应估算的可行性和准确性进行了分析。研究结果表明：相对传递函数和绝对传递函数的虚部重合,采用两种传递函数虚部计算场地动力参数具有等同性,且采用两种传递函数虚部曲线计算得到的动力特性参数较为准确;固有频率的计算适合采用两种传递函数的虚部或是相对传递函数的模;场地阻尼比的计算宜采用两种传递函数的虚部或绝对传递函数的模;利用两种传递函数实部、虚部或模计算得到的场地加速度振型是一致的;利用传递函数估算场地频域动力响应是可行的,且相对传递函数的估算结果更加准确。该研究对传递函数在场地动力特性参数计算及场地频域响应估算方面进行了有益的尝试。     

Seismic response of the Mexico City Basin: A review of twenty years of research

Mexico City, political and economic center of Mexico, was founded in a lake, at more than 2000 m above sea level. The lacustrine mud under the downtown area is associated with high seismic risk. Twenty years after the destructive 1985 earthquake (Ms = 8.1) we review published research on seismic response in the Mexico Basin, especially seismic and microtremor studies on soft ground and the influence of the seismic response of lake mud on damage.     

火山岩地震响应特征的正演模拟

为进一步了解松南梨树断陷火石岭组火山岩储层的地震响应特征,指导火山岩体的地震资料解译及成藏期次的识别,以实际地震资料为基础,结合钻井信息及地质认识,构建了火山岩地质模型,利用非平稳随机介质模拟技术对火山岩地震响应进行了正演模拟。通过正演模拟计算,得到并分析了由浅至深各反射层系及沉积相带的地震反射特征,从而为明确本地区火山岩响应规律,进一步检验地震地质解译模型建造的准确性,加深对本区火山岩成藏规律的认识提供依据。     

大型地下洞室群关键块体地震响应分析

基于块体理论,针对地下厂房围岩中的关键块体,采用Newmark法进行了地震响应特征和稳定性评价方法的研究,研究表明,三向地震荷载组合作用下,在块体上引起的数值较大、作用时间很短的惯性力是关键块体产生永久位移的根本原因。块体在不同烈度地震荷载作用下其响应特征不只发生量的变化,还有运动规律、模式方面的变化。研究还发现,关键块体地震响应特征与其几何特征存在一定的相关性,并由此建立了大型地下洞室群围岩地震稳定分析的多因素、多指标评判方法。最后考虑结构面的退化效应,研究了块体地震响应特征关于结构面强度参数的敏感性,获得了一些有益的结论。     

土层随机地震反应分析中侧向边界的影响分析

研究了随机地震激励下土层地震反应及土-结构相互作用分析中有限土域的取值范围对计算精度的影响。分别以基岩白噪声谱和杜修力修正基岩谱作为输入,进行了土层随机地震反应分析,探讨了自由边界、固定边界和黏弹性边界3种人工边界条件下土域的取值范围、土介质阻尼和土体长深比（L/H）对土层随机地震反应的影响,给出了侧向人工边界合理位置的具体建议。在此基础上,选取土体的合理边界范围,建立土-结构相互作用分析模型,分别以基岩白噪声谱、杜修力修正基岩谱以及实测地震波功率谱作为输入,进行了土-结构相互作用体系随机地震反应分析,计算结果验证了侧向人工边界取值在土-结构相互作用体系随机地震反应分析中的有效性。     

Vulnerability index and capacity spectrum based methods for urban seismic risk evaluation. A comparison

This article contributes to the development and application of two latest-generation methods of seismic risk analysis in urban areas. The first method, namely vulnerability index method (VIM), considers five non-null damage states, defines the action in terms of macroseismic intensity and the seismic quality of the building by means of a vulnerability index. The estimated damage degree is measured by semi-empirical functions. The second method, namely capacity spectrum based method (CSBM), considers four no damage states, defines the seismic action in terms of response spectra and the building vulnerability by means of its capacity spectrum. In order to apply both methods to Barcelona (Spain) and compare the results, a deterministic and a probabilistic hazard scenario with soil effects are used. The deterministic one corresponds to a historic earthquake, while the probabilistic seismic ground motion has a probability of exceedence of 10% in 50 years. Detailed information on the building design has been obtained along years by collecting, arranging, improving, and completing the database of the dwellings of the city. A Geographic Information System (GIS) has been customized allowing storing, analysing, and displaying this large amount of spatial and tabular data of dwellings. The obtained results are highly consistent with the historical and modern evolution of the populated area and show the validity and strength of both methods. Although Barcelona has a low to moderate seismic hazard, its expected seismic risk is significant because of the high vulnerability of its buildings. Cities such as Barcelona, located in a low to moderate seismic hazard region, are usually not aware of the seismic risk. The detailed risk maps obtained offer a great opportunity to guide the decision making in the field of seismic risk prevention and mitigation in Barcelona, and for emergency planning in the city.     

土体动非线性黏弹性模型及其ABAQUS软件的实现

基于土的动应力-应变关系--Davidenkov骨架曲线,采用破坏剪应变幅上限值作为分界点,对Davidenkov骨架曲线进行了修正,即当剪应力值大于破坏剪应力值时,土体产生破坏,土体的动剪切模量采用破坏后的动剪切模量;参考Mashing法则,构造了修正后的Davidenkov骨架曲线土体加卸载对应的应力-应变滞回圈曲线。基于ABAQUS软件的操作平台,开发了土体动弹塑性本构模型的子程序。选择南京某个典型软弱场地为研究对象,首先输入余弦加速度时程曲线,然后选取一条强震加速度记录作为基岩输入地震动,对不同峰值加速度水平下该场地的地震反应进行了二维有限元非线性分析,计算结果验证了所建模型的准确性和可用性。     

Study of a full-wave equation-based seismic illumination analysis

Recently, the seismic illumination analysis has progressed considerably in methodology which has been developed not only from one-way wave equation-based illumination to full-wave equation-based illumination but also from conventional illumination analysis to directional illumination analysis with local plane-wave decomposition. Because of the inherent defects of the one-way wave equation, the full-wave equation-based seismic illumination methods have increasingly attracted more attention. However, full-wave equation-based wavefield includes both downgoing and upgoing waves, such as transmissive, turning, and reflected waves. This hybrid wavefield can mislead us in seismic illumination analysis. For the sake of a preferable seismic illumination analysis method, we separated upgoing and downgoing wavefields in the time domain using Poynting vector and defined the incident and reflected illumination analysis functions based on the separated wavefields. Furthermore, we applied these two new illumination functions in seismic illumination analysis with the Sigsbee2a model. Multiple-shot illumination results show that the full-wave illumination and incident illumination maps are consistent with the seismic migration image. Because of no interference caused by the interactions between upgoing and downgoing waves, the incident illumination is superior for illumination analysis. Successful application of the full-wave equation-based incident and reflected illumination functions in the actual acquisition direction design of marine seismic geometry verifies their applicability and reveals their excellent prospects.