Permeability of granular soil employing flexible wall permeameter

Understanding the changes in permeability of soil, when soil is subjected to high confining pressure and flow pressure, which may alter the textural and geomechanical characteristics of soil, is of great importance to many geo-engineering activities such as, construction of high-rise buildings near the coast or the water bodies, earthen dams, pavement subgrades, reservoir, and shallow repositories. It is now possible to evaluate the changes in permeability of soil samples under varying conditions of confining pressure and flow pressure using flexible wall permeameter (FWP). In the present study, investigation was carried out on a cylindrical sample of granular soil employing FWP under varied conditions of confining pressure (σ₃)—50–300 kPa, which can simulate the stress conditions equivalent to depth of about 20 m under the earth’s crust, and a flow pressure (f_p)—20–120 kPa, which is mainly present near the small earthen embankment dams, landfill liners, and slurry walls near the soft granular soil with high groundwater table. The obtained results indicate a linear relationship between hydraulic conductivity (k) with effective confining pressure (σ_eff.), k, decreasing linearly with an incremental change in σ_eff.. Further, k increases significantly with an increase in f_p corresponding to each σ_eff., and q increases significantly with increase in the f_p corresponding to each (σ₃). It was also observed that corresponding to the low f_p of 20 kPa, the reduction in k is nonlinear with σ_3. The percentage reduction in k is observed to be 9, 13, and 27% corresponding to σ₃ of 50–100, 100–200, and 200-300 kPa, respectively.     

DEM simulations of sandstone under true triaxial compressive tests

Numerically simulated true triaxial compression tests (σ ₁ ≥ σ ₂ ≥ σ ₃) are conducted in this study to elucidate the failure mechanism of sandstone using 3D discrete element method (DEM), in particular the effect of the intermediate principal stress (σ ₂). Eight series of tests (σ ₃ = 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 MPa) are conducted. Within each series, σ ₂ is varied from σ ₂ = σ ₃ to σ ₂ = σ ₁ from test to test. For each test, σ ₁ is raised monotonically to failure while keeping σ ₂ and σ ₃ constant. The DEM simulations reveal the effect of σ ₂ on the variations of peak stress, Young’s modulus, failure plane angles, the brittle–ductile transition, and the evolution of failure modes, the effect beyond the well-understood effect of σ ₃. The simulation is in qualitative agreement with the results obtained experimentally. Detailed analyses performed on the particle-scale responses further the understanding of the microscopic mechanisms. The distribution of contact force becomes more homogeneous with the increase of σ ₃, which leads to the resulting damage being more localized rather than diffused. The interaction between contact force distribution and coalescence of cracks determines the processes and patterns of fracturing in the sample scale. σ ₂ is found to affect the microscopic stress distribution as well as structure evolution, and this effect weakens with the increase of σ ₃.     

Impact of pore water conductivity and porosity on the electrical conductivity of kaolinite

The purpose of this study is to quantify the magnitudes of surface conduction and pore water conduction from the measured electrical conductivity of kaolinite, with the ultimate goal of estimating the electrical conductivity of kaolinite with a wide range of pore water conductivities (σ _w = 0.013–3.356 S/m) and porosities (n = 0.368–1.0). Therefore, the theoretical background of the electrical conductivity in soils was reviewed, and electrical conductivity measurements on kaolinite were performed using both slurry and consolidation tests in this study. The results of this study demonstrate that the variations of measured electrical conductivity (σ _mix) with n are debatable according to the values of σ _w, because a decrease in n results in both an increase in surface conduction (K _s) and a decrease in pore water conduction (K _w); this causes the relative magnitude of K _s compared to that of K _w to vary with σ _w and n. Consequently, this study develops the relation between the porosity-normalized K _s/K _w and 1/σ _w. Additionally, the surface conductivity of the tested kaolinite is back-calculated and compared with the previous relationship between K _s and zeta potential of kaolinite. The measured and estimated σ _mix values are compared with the varying pore water conductivity and porosity values.     

Detailed comparison of nine intact rock failure criteria using polyaxial intact coal strength data obtained through PFC<Superscript>3D</Superscript> simulations

Study of intact rock failure criteria is an important topic in rock mechanics. In this study, applicability of nine different intact rock failure criteria is investigated for intact coal strength data. PFC^3D modeling was used to simulate the laboratory polyaxial tests for cubic intact coal blocks of side dimension 110 mm under different confining stress combinations. A modified grid search procedure is proposed and used to find the best-fitting parameter values and to calculate the coefficient of determination (R ²) values for each criterion. Detailed comparisons of the nine criteria are made using the following aspects: R ² values, σ ₁ ? σ ₂ plots for different σ ₃, shapes on the deviatoric plane, linearity or nonlinearity on the meridian planes. Through the comparisons of R ² values, σ ₁ ? σ ₂ plots and meridian lines, the modified Wiebols–Cook and modified Lade criteria were found to fit the intact coal strength data best. The nine failure criteria are categorized into three types based on the appearances on the deviatoric plane.     

Distribution rule of the in situ stress state and its influence on the permeability of a coal reservoir in the southern Qinshui Basin,China

The recent development of the coalbed methane (CBM) industry has a significant role in advancing hydraulic fracturing theory and technology. However, further development requires a better understanding of how fractures influence reservoir permeability. In situ stress data from 54 CBM wells in the southern Qinshui Basin, China, were obtained by the injection/falloff test method to analyse the effect of in situ stress on the permeability of the CBM reservoir. The types of in situ stress states were classified, and the coal reservoir permeability under different in situ stress states was analysed. The results indicate that the maximum horizontal principal stress (σ_H), minimum horizontal principal stress (σ_h) and vertical principal stress (σ_v) all have positive linear relationships with the coal seam burial depth. Three in situ stress states were observed from the shallow to deep regions of the CBM reservoir in the study area: σ_H?>?σ_h?>?σ_v, σ_H?>?σ_v?>?σ_h and σ_v?>?σ_H?>?σ_h, which account for 9, 76 and 15% of the test wells, respectively. Coal reservoir permeability decreases with increasing horizontal principal stress, whereas it first decreases with increasing σ_v, then increases and finally decreases. The variation in permeability with σ_v is due to the conversion of the in situ stress states. Coal reservoir permeability has obvious differences under different in situ stress states. The permeability is the largest when σ_v?>?σ_H?>?σ_h, followed by σ_H?>?σ_h?>?σ_v and smallest when σ_H?>?σ_v?>?σ_h. The permeability differences are caused by the fracture propagation shape of the rock strata under different in situ stress states.     

Modification of fluid inclusions in quartz by deviatoric stress. III: Influence of principal stresses on inclusion density and orientation

Extraction of useful geochemical, petrologic and structural information from deformed fluid inclusions is still a challenge in rocks displaying moderate plastic strain. In order to better understand the inclusion modifications induced by deviatoric stresses, six deformation experiments were performed with a Griggs piston-cylinder apparatus. Natural NaCl–H₂O inclusions in an oriented quartz crystal were subjected to differential stresses of 250–470 MPa at 700–900 °C and at 700–1,000 MPa confining pressure. Independently of the strain rate and of the crystallographic orientation of the quartz, the inclusions became dismembered and flattened within a crystallographic cleavage plane subperpendicular to σ ₁. The neonate (newly formed) inclusions that result from dismemberment have densities that tend towards equilibrium with P _fluid = σ ₁ at T _shearing. These results permit ambiguities in earlier deformation experiments on CO₂–H₂O–NaCl to be resolved. The results of the two studies converge, indicating that density changes in neonate inclusions are promoted by high differential stresses, long periods at high P and high T, and fluid compositions that maximize quartz solubility. Neonates spawned from large precursor inclusions show greater changes in density that those spawned from small precursors. These findings support the proposal that deformed fluid inclusions can serve as monitors of both the orientation and magnitude of deviatoric stresses during low-strain, ductile deformation of quartz-bearing rocks.     

Shear Strength Response of a Geotextile-Reinforced Chlef Sand: A Laboratory Study

During the last earthquake that occurred in Chlef (El Asnam 1980, Algeria), a significant decrease in the shear strength has caused major damages to several civil and hydraulic structures (earth dams, embankments, bridges, slopes and buildings), especially for the saturated sandy soil of the areas near Chlef valley. This paper presents a laboratory study of drained compression triaxial tests conducted on sandy soil reinforced with horizontal layers of geotextile, in order to study the influence of geotextile layer characteristics both on shear stress–strain and on volumetric change–strain. Tests were carried out on medium and dense sand. The experimental programme includes some drained compression tests performed on reinforced sand samples, for different values of the geotextile layers number (N _g), of confining pressure (\( \sigma_{\text{c}}^{\prime } \)) and relative density (D _r). The test results have shown that the contribution of the geotextile at low values of the axial strain (ε ₁) is negligible, for higher values of (ε ₁); geotextile induces a quasi-linear increase in the deviator stress (q) and leads to an increase in the volume contractiveness within the reinforced samples. A negligible influence of geotextile layers number (N _g) on the stress–strain behaviour and the volumetric change has been shown, when normalized with N _g. The results indicate that the contribution of geotextile to the stress–strain mobilization increases with increasing confining pressure, while its contribution to the volume contraction decreases with the increase in the confining pressure.     

Mechanical Properties and Deformation and Failure Characteristics of Surrounding Rocks of Tunnels Excavated in Soft Rocks

As soft rocks are likely to soften, slime and swell while contacting water, the existence of soft rocks is harmful for stability of surrounding rocks and supporting structures of tunnels. Through uniaxial and triaxial tests under dry condition and triaxial test with different moisture contents, the mechanical properties and failure modes of soft rocks were studied under conditions that the schistosity plane of the rock samples was vertical to, presented an oblique angle with, and paralleled to the loading direction. The results showed that peak strengths in natural and water-bearing states increased with increasing confining pressures, while those in water-bearing state were 40% lower than those in natural state. The samples were mainly subjected to ductile failure in both natural and water-bearing states while the samples in natural state exhibited a certain brittle failure characteristic in post-peak phase. With the increase of confining pressures, the post-peak curve gradually became gentle after certain brittle failure while the post-peak stresses had an insignificant change. In comparison, the samples in water-bearing state showed significant post-peak disparity, that is, exhibited strong ductile failure characteristic. Moreover, the fitting relationship between triaxial compressive strength and moisture of soft rocks can be expresses as σ ₁ = Aω + B (A < 0, B > 0) while that between elasticity modulus and moisture can be expresses as E = Aω + B (A < 0, B > 0).     

Orthogonal test and regression analysis of the strain on silty soil in Shanghai under metro loading

Cyclic triaxial test by means of the geotechnical digital system is conducted for the soil near the Guoquan Road Station of Metro Line 10 in Shanghai to analyze the strain characteristics and the variation law of saturated silty soil under subway loading. Orthogonal design method is used to arrange the experiment, considering the following factors: frequency ratio f _R, cyclic stress ratio σ _R, vibration time ratio N _R, and the interaction function among them. Results show that the cyclic stress ratio σ _R, the frequency ratio f _R, the vibration time ratio N _R, and the interaction between the cyclic stress ratio σ _R and the vibration time ratio N _R have a significant effect on the axial strain of the subway tunnel. The effect of the interaction between the cyclic stress ratio σ _R and the vibration time ratio N _R is also significant. From the analysis of variance and regression theory, the nonlinear regression equation of the cumulative plastic strain of silty soil under subway loading is established. Residual analysis proves that the equation is ideal and credible. The results have important value for the design of subway tunnels.     

A Criterion for Brittle Failure of Rocks Using the Theory of Critical Distances

This paper presents a new analytical criterion for brittle failure of rocks and heavily over-consolidated soils. Griffith’s model of a randomly oriented defect under a biaxial stress state is used to keep the criterion simple. The Griffith’s criterion is improved because the maximum tensile strength is not evaluated at the boundary of the defect but at a certain distance from the boundary, known as half of the critical distance. This fracture criterion is known as the point method, and is part of the theory of critical distances, which is utilised in fracture mechanics. The proposed failure criterion has two parameters: the inherent tensile strength, σ ₀, and the ratio of the half-length of the initial crack/flaw to the critical distance, a/L. These parameters are difficult to measure but they may be correlated with the uniaxial compressive and tensile strengths, σ _c and σ _t. The proposed criterion is able to reproduce the common range of strength ratios for rocks and heavily overconsolidated soils (σ _c/σ _t = 3–50) and the influence of several microstructural rock properties, such as texture and porosity. Good agreement with laboratory tests reported in the literature is found for tensile and low-confining stresses.     

Timescales for mechanisms for the dynamical evolution of open star clusters

We have obtained the stellar velocity dispersion in three mutually perpendicular directions in the halos and cores of clusters as a function of time for several non-stationary open-cluster models. During the dynamical evolution of the open-cluster models, the velocity dispersions undergo oscillations that do not decay during 5–10 violent-relaxation timescales, τ _vr . We estimated the time for synchronization of the rotation of the open-cluster models and their motion around the center of the Galaxy, t _s , which, depending on the model parameters, is t _s ? (5–27)τ _vr . Synchronization mechanisms for the models are discussed. The disruption of the systems in the force field of the Galaxy is strongly affected by tidal friction. We have also estimated the time for the formation of a spherical stellar-velocity distribution in the cluster models, t _σ ? (6 ? 25)τ _vr . The impact of instability in the stellar motions in a cluster on the formation of a spherical velocity distribution in the open-cluster models is discussed. We have noted a tendency for a weakening of the dependence of the coarse phase density of the cluster on small initial perturbations of the stellar phase coordinates in the model cluster cores for times about five times longer than the violent-relaxation time.     

Physicochemical model for the crystallization of rocks of the calc-alkaline series

The Al-rich region of the CaO-MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ system was experimentally studied at pressures of 1.0–2.8 GPa and temperatures of 1300–1535°C. The slopes of the lines of the monovariant reactions An + Sp = Cpx + Cor + (Ga) and L = Cpx + Ga + Cor + Sp and the compositions of the phases involved in these reactions are determined. The results are utilized in the topological analysis of the aluminous region of the CaO-MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ system. On this basis, the principal structure of the phase diagram is analyzed, and a phase diagram is constructed for the junction region of the quaternary system and the CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ ternary system. A continuous series of the monovariant eutectic: L = Cpx + Opx + Fo + An, L = Cpx + Opx + An + Sp, L = Cpx + (Ga) + An + Sp, L = Cpx + Cor + (Ga) + An, L = An + Ga + Cpx + Ky and L = Ga + Cpx + Ky + Qz is examined within the pressure range from atmospheric to 3.0 GPa and higher. Analogous “telescoped” eutectic series are of fundamental character for interpreting the evolution of magmatic melts. A physicochemical model is suggested for the evolution of magmatic melts that produce rocks of the calc-alkaline series, with this model underlain by the fact that a change in the composition of magmatic melt at a pressure decrease should correspond to the minimum melting temperatures, i.e., to melts in the fundamental series of eutectic reactions. The comparison of our physicochemical model and rocks of the calc-alkaline series shows that the compositions of rocks of the calc-alkaline series are close to the compositions determined for the eutectic equilibria, and the mineralogical composition of xenoliths and megacrysts in volcanic and dike varieties of the rocks are similar to the subsolidus phases of the established fundamental eutectic system.     

Cosmological tests based on the abundance of galaxy clusters

We present a new normalization for the linear density-perturbation spectrum in a multi-parameter model of the Universe. Using the differential mass function for the nearly galaxy clusters obtained from optical data, we have constructed a functional relation between the dispersion of the density contrast σ ₈ on the scale 8h ^?1 Mpc and the cosmological parameters Ω _m , Ω_Λ, h, n, f _v for each of three theoretical approximations of the mass function: Press-Schechter, Sheth-Tormen and Jenkins. An extended class of models of the Universe with general spatial curvature include four parameters for the matter components: baryons (Ω _b ), “cold” dark matter (Ω _c ), “hot” dark matter (Ω _v ), and the vacuum energy (Ω_Λ). It is shown that the most accurate normalization of the power spectrum is achieved with the Sheth-Tormen approximation.     

Crystal chemistry of selenates with mineral-like structures: VIII. Butlerite chains in the structure of K(UO<Subscript>2</Subscript>)(SeO<Subscript>4</Subscript>)(OH)(H<Subscript>2</Subscript>O)

A new potassium uranyl selenate compound K(UO₂)(SeO₄)(OH)(H₂O) has been synthesized for the first time using the technique of evaporation from water solution. Its crystal structure has been solved by direct methods (monoclinic, P2₁/c,a = 8.0413(9) Å, b = 8.0362(9) Å, c = 11.6032(14) Å, β = 106.925(2)°, V = 717.34(14) ų) and refined to R ₁ = 0.0319 (wR ₂ = 0.0824) for 1285 reflections with |F ₀| > 4σ _F . The structure consists of [(UO₂(SeO₄)(OH)(H₂O)]^? chains extending along axis b. In the chains, the uranyl pentagonal bipyramids are linked via bridged hydroxyl anions and tetrahedral oxoanions [SeO₄]^2?. Potassium ions are situated between these chains. No chains of that type have been observed in uranyl compounds earlier, but they had been detected in the structures of butlerite, parabutlerite, uklonskovite, fibroferrite, and a number of synthetic compounds.     

Strmömgren zones of type II supernovae

The emission measures EM in the directions of supernova remnants and pulsars are considered as functions of their ages t. The resulting plot has a well-defined lower boundary, which can be approximated by the expression EM_min∝1/t. The quantity EM_min increases with decreasing age t and does not level off or reach a maximum until t?500 yr. It is concluded that the bulk of the radiative energy that goes into ionizing and heating the interstellar gas is released at early stages of the supernova remnant’s evolution. We suggest that most of the kinetic energy of the supernova shell is converted into thermal energy and radiated at remnant ages t<100 yr, when the supernova shell, which is expanding at an enormous speed (about 10⁴ km/s), overtakes the shell produced by the presupernova in the supergiant stage. We have estimated the ionization energy E?10⁵¹ erg, diameter L?60 pc, and electron density N_e?7 cm^?3 of the HII regions around the supernovae (the supernova Strömgren zones). A list of objects that can be reliably identified as Strömgren zones of type II supernovae is presented. The plot of pulsar pulse broadening τ as a function of the pulsar age t also has a well-defined lower boundary, for which τ∝t^?2 when t≥1000 yr. This suggests that turbulence develops during the first thousand years after the supernova outburst. It is also concluded that turbulence plays an important role in the formation and evolution of the Strömgren zones of type II supernovae.     

A numerical approach to the design parameters of permanent stoppings (seals and bulkheads) in Turkish underground coal mines

Observing permanent seals with different physical and mechanical characteristics under various conditions in the field is almost impossible. In conjunction with the development of high-speed computer algorithms, numerical simulation has become one of the major means to study the dynamics of such problems. Therefore, this study covers only the numerical approach to analyze the stability of underground seals. In this regard, the purpose of this study is to provide an insight to the design of underground seals by numerically analyzing their behaviors under different static and dynamic explosion overpressures using a geo-technical commercial software FLAC3D. For this purpose, a series of numerical models were constructed for a typical seal in an underground gallery with different properties such as seal thickness, seal dimensions, gallery geometry, and strength of the seal material to investigate the stability of seals exposed to various static and dynamic explosion overpressures. A total of 896 numerical analyses (512 static and 384 dynamic) were performed and evaluated. Regarding the gallery geometry, it was found that seals constructed in trapeze-shaped galleries are more stable than those constructed in horseshoe-shaped galleries having the same dimensions. Moreover, the results showed that the seal stability increases with the increasing seal thickness rather than the strength of the seal material. The statistical analyses suggest that there is a very strong exponential relationship between the seal thickness and the maximum displacement measured at the midpoints of the outer surfaces of the seals. The coefficients of determination values obtained are in the range of 0.92–0.93 and 0.92–0.95 for static and dynamic analyses, respectively. We proposed formulas which use the longer dimension of the seal (W _max ), maximum allowable displacement on the seal (D _max ), explosion overpressure applied onto the seal (P _exp ), and compressive strength of the seal material (σ _c and σ _cd for static and dynamic conditions, respectively) to predict the minimum required seal thickness (T _s ) for static and dynamic conditions. The proposed formulas enable calculating the necessary seal thickness easily if the explosion overpressure (or hydrostatic pressure) is known or approximated.     

Refinement of the mangan-neptunite crystal structure

The crystal structure of mangan-neptunite, a manganese analogue of neptunite, has been refined in two space groups (Cc and C2/c). The mineral is monoclinic, with the correct space group Cc; the unit-cell dimensions are: a = 16.4821(6), b = 12.5195(4), c = 10.0292(3) Å, β = 115.474(1)°, and V = 1868.31 ų. The crystal structure has been refined to R ₁ = 0.0307 (wR ₂ = 0.0901) on the basis of 4892 observed reflections with |F _hkl | ≥ 4σ|F _hkl |. The most plausible acentric model is caused by the Ti- and (Fe, Mn, Mg)-ordering in the structure. Ti-octahedrons are strongly distorted and consist of short bond Ti-O (1.7 Å), one long bond (2.2 Å), and four equal bonds (2.0 Å). Fe-octahedrons are regularly shaped, with all Fe-O bonds being approximately identical.     

On the crystal chemistry and elastic behavior of a phlogopite 3<Emphasis Type="Italic">T</Emphasis>

The crystal chemistry and the elastic behavior under isothermal conditions up to 9 GPa of a natural, and extremely rare, 3T-phlogopite from Traversella (Valchiusella, Turin, Western Alps) [(K_0.99Na_0.05Ba_0.01)(Mg_2.60Al_0.20Fe _0.21 ²⁺ )[Si_2.71Al_1.29O₁₀](OH)₂, space group P3₁12, with a = 5.3167(4), c = 30.440(2) Å, and V = 745.16(9) ų] have been investigated by electron microprobe analysis in wavelength dispersion mode, single-crystal X-ray diffraction at 100 K, and in situ high-pressure synchrotron radiation powder diffraction (at room temperature) with a diamond anvil cell. The single-crystal refinement confirms the general structure features expected for trioctahedral micas, with the inter-layer site partially occupied by potassium and sodium, iron almost homogeneously distributed over the three independent octahedral sites, and the average bond distances of the two unique tetrahedra suggesting a disordered Si/Al-distribution (i.e., 〈T1-O〉 ~ 1.658 and 〈T2-O〉 ~ 1.656 Å). The location of the H-site confirms the orientation of the O–H vector nearly perpendicular to (0001). The refinement converged with R ₁(F) = 0.0382, 846 unique reflections with F _O > 4σ(F _O) and 61 refined parameters, and not significant residuals in the final difference-Fourier map of the electron density (+0.77/?0.37 e ^?/ų). The high-pressure experiments showed no phase transition within the pressure range investigated. The P–V data were fitted with a Murnaghan (M-EoS) and a third-order Birch-Murnaghan equation of state (BM-EoS), yielding: (1) M-EoS, V ₀ = 747.0(3) ų, K _T0 = 44.5(24) GPa, and K′ = 8.0(9); (2) BM-EoS, V ₀ = 747.0(3) ų, K _T0 = 42.8(29) GPa, and K′ = 9.9(17). A comparison between the elastic behavior in response to pressure observed in 1M- and 3T-phlogopite is made.