Launch strategy for Indian lunar mission and precision injection to the Moon using genetic algorithm

The Indian lunar mission Chandrayaan-1 will have a mass of 523 kg in a 100 km circular polar orbit around the Moon. The main factors that dictate the design of the Indian Moon mission are to use the present capability of launch vehicles and to achieve the scientific objectives in the minimum development time and cost. The detailed mission planning involves trade-off studies in payload optimization and the transfer trajectory determination that accomplishes these requirements. Recent studies indicate that for an optimal use of the existing launch vehicle and space-craft systems, highly elliptical inclined orbits are preferable. This indeed is true for the Indian Moon mission Chandrayaan-1. The proposed launch scenario of the Indian Moon mission program and capabilities of this mission are described in this paper, highlighting the design challenges and innovations. Further, to reach the target accurately, appropriate initial transfer trajectory characteristics must be chosen. A numerical search for the initial conditions combined with numerical integration produces the near accurate solution for this problem. The design of such transfer trajectories is discussed in this paper.     

Low energy neutral atom imaging on the Moon with the SARA instrument aboard Chandrayaan-1 mission

This paper reports on the Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer (SARA) experiment that will be flown on the first Indian lunar mission Chandrayaan-1. The SARA is a low energy neutral atom (LENA) imaging mass spectrometer, which will perform remote sensing of the lunar surface via detection of neutral atoms in the energy range from 10 eV to 3 keV from a 100km polar orbit. In this report we present the basic design of the SARA experiment and discuss various scientific issues that will be addressed. The SARA instrument consists of three major subsystems: a LENA sensor (CENA), a solar wind monitor (SWIM), and a digital processing unit (DPU). SARA will be used to image the solar wind-surface interaction to study primarily the surface composition and surface magnetic anomalies and associated mini-magnetospheres. Studies of lunar exosphere sources and space weathering on the Moon will also be attempted. SARA is the first LENA imaging mass spectrometer of its kind to be flown on a space mission. A replica of SARA is planned to fly to Mercury onboard the BepiColombo mission.     

SMART-1 after lunar capture: First results and perspectives

SMART-1 is a technology demonstration mission for deep space solar electrical propulsion and technologies for the future. SMART-1 is Europe’s first lunar mission and will contribute to developing an international program of lunar exploration. The spacecraft was launched on 27th September 2003, as an auxiliary passenger to GTO on Ariane 5, to reach the Moon after a 15-month cruise, with lunar capture on 15th November 2004, just a week before the International Lunar Conference in Udaipur. SMART-1 carries seven experiments, including three remote sensing instruments used during the mission’s nominal six months and one year extension in lunar science orbit. These instruments will contribute to key planetary scientific questions, related to theories of lunar origin and evolution, the global and local crustal composition, the search for cold traps at the lunar poles and the mapping of potential lunar resources     

An analysis of near-circular lunar mapping orbits

Numerical investigations have been carried out to analyse the evolution of lunar circular orbits and the influence of the higher order harmonics of the lunar gravity field. The aim is to select the appropriate near-circular orbit characteristics, which extend orbit life through passive orbit maintenance. The spherical harmonic terms that make major contributions to the orbital behaviour are identified through many case studies. It is found that for low circular orbits, the 7th and the 9th zonal harmonics have predominant effect in the case of orbits for which the evolution is stable and the life is longer, and also in the case of orbits for which the evolution is unstable and a crash takes place in a short duration. By analysing the contribution of the harmonic terms to the orbit behaviour, the appropriate near-circular orbit characteristics are identified.     

Periodicity of geophysical fields and seismicity: possible links with core motion

Years-long data series of Earth’s natural pulse electromagnetic fields (EPEMF) from the Talaya station near Lake Baikal indicates their mainly terrestrial origin and includes a component of poorly understood stable diurnal and annual crustal rhythms. The short-period crustal motion may drive mechanic-to-electric conversion in rocks and be responsible for diurnal and annual VLF electromagnetic pulses.The lithospheric rather than atmospheric origin of many recorded EPEMF signals is supported by their links with nucleation of earthquakes and respective perfect match of the EPEMF and seismicity diurnal patterns. Joint spectral analysis of the Talaya EPEMF and seismicity time series and comparison with the known spectra of lunar and solar tides shows no direct correlation between the short-period rhythms and the gravitation effects.We suggest that the diurnal and annual EPEMF periodicity may be associated with differential motion of the core and lithosphere and use this hypothesis to model an annual core path. As the model predicts, the inner solid core is never at the Earth’s geometric center but moves relative to the latter along a closed orbit; the plane of the core orbit is normal to the equatorial plane and tilted 45° to the direction to the Sun and to the Earth’s orbit; the core rotates 1.1 deg/yr faster than the Earth. The suggested model of core motion is consistent with the known instability of Earth rotation.     

Quasi-biennial oscillation in geomagnetic disturbance field

Using the techniques of second derivatives, digital filtering and power spectral analysis, the fine structure of the quasi-biennial oscillation (qbo) in the equatorial geomagnetic field in the Indian zone is studied. The salient results are: (i) in the quiet day field,qbo is weak and the signal strength has no local time dependence; (ii) in the disturbance field the signal is strongest in the afternoon and evening hours and (iii) larger magnitudes are manifested closer to the dip equator. The difference in dawn and dusk amplitudes of the signal and the absence of significant strength close to noon in the electrojet region rules outeuv flux as the responsible agent.     

Global repeating events in the history of the Earth and the motion of the Sun in the Galaxy

Chronological analyses of correlations between certain global repeating events (mass extinctions of marine organisms, meteorite impacts, and flashes in the frequency of geomagnetic reversals) during the Phanerozoic Eon and the motion of the solar system in the Galaxy are presented for five rotationally symmetrical models for the regular Galactic gravitational field. Thirteen of sixteen mass-extinction events can be described by a repetition interval of 183±3 million years. This is in agreement with the anomalistic period (interval between two subsequent passages of the Sun through the apocenter of its Galactic orbit) in the model of Allen and Martos. The positions of the minima and maxima in Gaussian functions approximating the frequency distribution for geomagnetic reversals also agree with the times of passage of the Sun through the apocenter and pericenter, respectively, of its Galactic orbit in this model. The maximum in the distribution of the deviations of the dates of mass extinctions from the nearest dates of impacts of large, crater-forming bodies is close to zero, providing evidence that many such events are correlated. As a rule, extinctions follow impact events. The impacts of large bodies have occurred most often when the solar system passes through the Galactic plane, while mass extinctions occur more often at some distance from the Galactic plane (about 40 pc). As a rule, intervals of increases in the frequency of geomagnetic reversals coincide with dates of impacts of large bodies. At the same time, these intervals do not show a clear correlation with the dates of mass extinctions. The intensity of mass extinctions, like the energy released by impacts, is consistently higher in periods when the Sun is moving from the apocenter toward the pericenter of its orbit, than when it is moving from the pericenter toward the apocenter. Thus, there is evidence for a variety of relationships between repeating global events in the Phanerozoic and the motion of the Sun in the Galaxy. Long-period variations in the frequency of geomagnetic reversals are correlated with the orbital motion of the Sun, and increases in the frequency of geomagnetic reversals are correlated with impacts. Mass extinctions are correlated with the impacts of large bodies, whose motions may have been perturbed by clouds of interstellar material concentrated toward the Galactic plane and by the shock front associated with the Perseus spiral arm, through which the solar system passes. The velocity of the Sun relative to the spiral pattern is estimated.     

Rotational-oscillatory variations in the Earth rotation parameters within short time intervals

A mathematical model for rotational-oscillatory motions of the Earth is constructed by applying celestial mechanics to the spatial problem of the Earth-Moon system subject to the Sun’s gravitation. Some basic phenomena associated with tidal irregularity in the Earth’s axial rotation and the polar oscillations are studied. It is shown that the perturbing component of the gravitational-tidal forces orthogonal to the plane of the lunar orbit is responsible for some short-term perturbations in the Moon’s motion. The constructed model for the rotational-oscillatory motions of the deformable Earth includes both the main high-amplitude perturbations and more complex small-scale motions attributed to short-term lunar perturbations with combinational frequencies. Numerical modeling (interpolation and forecasting) of the Earth rotation parameters within various time intervals based on astrometric data obtained by the International Earth Rotation Service is presented.     

Insolation and glacials

Climatic changes result from variables in planetary orbits which modulate solar energy emission and change seasonal and latitudinal distribution of heat received by the Earth. Small insolation changes are multiplied by the albedo effect of the winter snow fields of the Northern Hemisphere, by ocean-atmosphere feedbacks, and, probably, by the stratospheric ozone layer. The role of volcanic explosions and other aperiodic phenomena is secondary. The immediate climate response to insolation trends permits astronomic dating of Pleistocene events. A new glacial insolation regime, expected to last 8000 years, began just recently. Mean global temperatures may eventually drop about 1^oC in the next hundred years. A refinement of the Milankovitch theory in terms of the lunar orbit and more data on solar periodicities are needed for reliable long range predictions.     

Validate global mapping of internal lunar magnetic field

In this work, we report a global mapping of vector lunar magnetic field based on new method of separation of internal and external fields. The magnetic measurements collected during the lifetime of lunar prospector (LP) extended mission during 1999 were strongly disturbed by the solar wind, a period which coincided with a maximum of the 23 cycle activity. The multiscale wavelength external fields were analyzed using spherical harmonic transform. The external field determined by inversion was then removed from each magnetic field component for each half orbit. To map the vector magnetic crustal anomalies, all LP magnetometer data collected at low altitudes in the three different lunar environments: (1) geomagnetic tail, (2) solar wind, and (3) geomagnetic sheath were processed using this new approach. The results obtained using these selection criteria allow us to get a global coverage of the lunar surface by the vector magnetic field at variable spacecraft low altitudes. To validate our mapping, we have developed and applied a method based on properties of potential fields functions. This method can be used to determine both horizontal north and east components using only vertical component. The validated lunar internal magnetic measurements obtained at variable spacecraft altitudes were then continued to a common altitude of 30 km using an inverse method. This mapping confirms firstly the nature of the crustal sources of lunar magnetic field and clearly shows that the strongest concentrations of anomalies are associated with high albedo and/or located antipodal to large young basins (Orientale, Serenitatis, Imbrium, and Crisium) of age about 3.9 Ga.     

Spawning location and distribution of early life stages of alewife and blueback herring in a Virginia stream

During the 1992 spawning season of river herring, three sites in a tributary of the Rappahannock River, Virginia, were studied to characterize spawning and nursery habitats of alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis) and to identify differences in habitat use along an upstream to downtream gradient. The sites were sampled (using drift and dip nets and a plankton sampler) and habitat variables were measured on a 5-d, four-time interval rotation: at the end of 5 d, each site had been sampled once at dawn, noon, dusk, and midnight. Considerable non-overlap in spawning seasonality was apparent between species. For both species, densities of river herring adults, eggs, and yolk-sac larvae were highest at the upstream site, indicating 1) that the upstream site is more important for spawning than downstream areas, and 2) these species do not use different spawning areas in this stream. Densities of post-yolk-sac larvae did not differ significantly among sites, indicating post-spawning dispersal to downstream areas. The upstream site was smaller in area, more acidic, had faster water flow, clearer water, more vegetation, and siltier substrate than the downstream sites. At times, pH levels in the upstream site were within the lethal range reported for blueback herring larvae. Possible reasons for selection of the upstream habitat include: 1) adults may migrate as far upstream as possible to avoid predation or potential competition with other species of fish for spawning habitat; or 2) adults may historically enjoy greater spawning success in the upstream habitat due to physicochemical features of this area. More study is needed to determine the reasons for river herring use of upstream habitats in Virginia streams.     

Catalog of hard X-ray solar flares detected with Mars Odyssey/HEND from the Mars orbit in 2001–2016

The study of nonstationary processes in the Sun is of great interest, and multi-wavelength observations and the registration of magnetic fields have been carried out using both ground-based telescopes and several specialized spacecraft in near-Earth orbits in recent years. However, the acquisition of new, reliable information on their hard X-ray radiation remains necessary, in particular, if the corresponding spacecraft provide additional information, e.g., in regard to flare observations from directions other than the Sun–Earth direction. This paper presents a catalog of powerful solar flares registered by the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) designed at the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. HEND is mounted onboard the 2001Mars Odyssey spacecraft. It operated successfully during the flight to Mars and is currently operating in near-Mars orbit. Apart from neutrons, HEND is sensitive to hard X-ray (up to 300 keV) and gamma-ray radiation (above 300 keV). This radiation is registered by two scintillators: an outer one that is sensitive to photons above 40 keV and an inner one sensitive to photons above 200 keV. The catalog was created using a new procedure for calibration of the data. For the most powerful 60 solar flares in the visible and far sides of the Sun (for a terrestrial observer), time profiles of the flare radiation summed over all channels of the X-ray, and in some cases the gamma-ray, bands are provided, as well as spectra and characteristics of power-law fits. The results of previous studies of the Sun using HEND and the potential for further use of these data are discussed.     

Characteristics of Pi2 pulsations at an equatorial station and its occurrence association with the phase of the Moon

Diurnal variations of occurrence hours and the period of Pi2 pulsations at Choutuppal (India) for nearly half a solar cycle are presented. Maximum occurrence is noticed to be around local midnight in all the seasons. Shorter periods are observed in the late afternoon hours in E-and J-seasons. Lunar influence on the occurrence of Pi2 pulsations at this station is inferred with the occurrence due to this influence peaking in the vicinity of the lunar phase4.     

High energy X-γ ray spectrometer on the Chandrayaan-1 mission to the Moon

The Chandrayaan-1 mission to the Moon scheduled for launch in late 2007 will include a high energy X-ray spectrometer (HEX) for detection of naturally occurring emissions from the lunar surface due to radioactive decay of the²³⁸U and²³²Th series nuclides in the energy region 20–250 keV. The primary science objective is to study the transport of volatiles on the lunar surface by detection of the 46.5 keV line from radioactive²¹⁰Pb, a decay product of the gaseous²²²Rn, both of which are members of the²³⁸U decay series. Mapping of U and Th concentration over the lunar surface, particularly in the polar and U-Th rich regions will also be attempted through detection of prominent lines from the U and Th decay series in the above energy range. The low signal strengths of these emissions require a detector with high sensitivity and good energy resolution. Pixelated Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride (CZT) array detectors having these characteristics will be used in this experiment. Here we describe the science considerations that led to this experiment, anticipated flux and background (lunar continuum), the choice of detectors, the proposed payload configuration and plans for its realization     

Do lunar and meteoritic archives record temporal variations in the composition of solar wind noble gases and nitrogen? A reassessment in the light of Genesis data

Since about half a century samples from the lunar and asteroidal regoliths been used to derive information about elemental and isotopic composition and other properties of the present and past solar wind, predominantly for the noble gases and nitrogen. Secular changes of several important compositional parameters in the solar wind were proposed, as was a likely secular decrease of the solar wind flux. In 2004 NASA’s Genesis mission returned samples which had been exposed to the solar wind for almost 2.5 years. Their analyses resulted in an unprecendented accuracy for the isotopic and elemental composition of several elements in the solar wind, including noble gases, O and N. The Genesis data therefore also allow to re-evaluate the lunar and meteorite data, which is done here. In particular, claims for long-term changes of solar wind composition are reviewed.Outermost grain layers from relatively recently irradiated lunar regolith samples conserve the true isotopic ratios of implanted solar wind species. This conclusion had been made before Genesis based on the agreement of He and Ne isotopic data measured in the aluminum foils exposed to the solar wind on the Moon during the Apollo missions with data obtained in the first gas release fractions of stepwise in-vacuo etch experiments. Genesis data allowed to strengthen this conclusion and to extend it to all five noble gases. Minor variations in the isotopic compositions of implanted solar noble gases between relatively recently irradiated samples (<100 Ma) and samples irradiated billions of years ago are very likely the result of isotopic fractionation processes that happened after trapping of the gases rather than indicative of true secular changes in the solar wind composition. This is particularly important for the ³He/⁴He ratio, whose constancy over billions of years indicates that hardly any ³He produced as transient product of the pp-chains has been mixed from the solar interior into its outer convective zone. The He isotopic composition measured in the present-day solar wind therefore is identical to the (D + ³He)/⁴He ratio at the start of the suns’s main sequence phase and hence can be used to determine the protosolar D/H ratio.Genesis settled the long-standing controversy on the isotopic composition of nitrogen in lunar regolith samples. The ¹⁵N/¹⁴N ratio in the solar wind as measured by Genesis is lower than in any lunar sample. This proves that nitrogen in regolith samples is dominated by non-solar sources. A postulated secular increase of ¹⁵N/¹⁴N by some 30% over the past few Ga is not tenable any longer. Genesis also provided accurate data on the isotopic composition of oxygen in the solar wind, invaluable for cosmochemisty. These data superseded but essentially confirmed one value – and disproved a second one – derived from lunar regolith samples shortly prior to Genesis.Genesis also confirmed prior conclusions that lunar regolith samples essentially conserve the true elemental ratios of the heavy noble gases in the solar wind (Ar/Kr, Kr/Xe). Several secular changes of elemental abundances of noble gases in the solar wind had been proposed based on lunar and meteoritic data. I argue here that lunar data – in concert with Genesis – provide convincing evidence only for a long-term decrease of the Kr/Xe ratio by almost a factor of two over the past several Ga. It appears that the enhancement of abundances of elements with a low first ionisation potential in the solar wind (FIP effect) changed with time.Finally, Genesis allows a somewhat improved comparison of the present-day flux of solar wind Kr and Xe with the total amount of heavy solar wind noble gases in the lunar regolith. It remains unclear whether the past solar wind flux has been several times higher on average than it is today.     

Where do the meteorites come from? A re-evaluation of the earth-crossing apollo objects as sources of chondritic meteorites

The total number of Earth-crossing Apollo objects larger than 500 m in radius is estimated to be 600, based on failure of chance rediscovery, lunar crater frequency and completeness-of-search results of Shoemaker, Helin and Gillett. The number of Amor objects (perihelion between 1.0 and 1.3 A.U.) is estimated to be about 500. These estimates are about an order of magnitude higher than those given by previous workers, and these objects appear sufficiently numerous to dominate post-mare lunar and terrestrial cratering (d ≥ 10 km).The terrestrial meteorite and meteorite yield of 100-10⁶ g bodies derived from fragmentation of Apollo objects is re-evaluated using this estimate, together with more recent data on asteroid albedos and on hypervelocity impact. Terrestrial rate of impacts of these fragments at sufficiently low velocities to penetrate the atmosphere is estimated to be ~2 × 10⁸g/yr. This is in the middle of the range of the actual extraterrestrial impact rate based on photographic fireball surveys (Prairie Network), lunar seismometry, and recovery of meteorites. It is likely that most ordinary chondrites are fragments of Apollo objects, provided that these fragments are sufficiently strong to survive atmospheric entry.Possible asteroidal and cometary sources of Apollo objects are reviewed. Several mechanisms for the removal of asteroids into Earth-crossing orbit are qualitatively acceptable, but appear inadequate by at least an order of magnitude to supply the required number. Most Apollo objects are probably the cores of comets which have lost their volatile material by repeated solar evaporation, as proposed by Öpik.The distribution of the component of the Apollo objects' angular momentum perpendicular to the plane of the solar system is tabulated. It is found that considerable non-random clustering of these values exists, for which no adequate explanation is known.     

Open magnetic fields on the Sun and solar wind parameters at the Earth’s orbit

It is shown that the parameters of the solar-wind magnetic field are determined by regions in coronal holes at distances of 1.1–1.4 solar radii, where the field lines are radial at low heights. Expanding further in a narrow nozzle or funnel, the field lines become radial throughout the unipolar region at 2.5 solar radii. Hence, the traditional approach of comparing the characteristics of the interplanetary field at the Earth’s orbit and at the corresponding helio-projection point on the Sun is not quite correct. It gives good results for the signs and sector structure of the field; however, the magnitude of the field is formed in a more extensive area. Taking this into account, we can correlate the field values on the Sun with the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), and thus explain the absence of weak fields in the vicinity of the IMF neutral line (the two-peaked nature of the distribution).     

Transition regions between stable periodic solutions of the general three-body problem

The behavior of triple systems in the transition zones located between regions of stability is studied in the framework of the general three-body problem with equal masses and zero angular momentum. It is well known that there are exist three stable periodic orbits, namely, the Schubart orbit for the rectilinear problem, the Broucke orbit for the isosceles problem, and the Moore eight-figure orbit. In the space of the initial conditions, these orbits are surrounded by sets of points where bounded motions are observed over substantial time intervals. The transition zones between the Schubart and Moore orbits and the Moore and Broucke orbits are studied. It is shown that the boundaries of the regions of stability can be either smooth and sharp or diffuse. Beyond these boundary regions, the dynamical evolution of triple systems results in a distant ejection of one of the components, or the decay of the system. The distribution of the times when the stability is lost is constructed, and obeys a power law for long time intervals. Three stages in the evolution of an unstable triple system are identified.     

Dynamical study of the wide visual binary ADS 12815 (16 Cyg)

A homogeneous series of photographic position measurments of the visual binary ADS 12815 obtained on the 26-inch refractor of the Pulkovo Observatory (1960–2007) is analyzed. The Pulkovo observations allow for the existence of the planet around component B discovered by Cochran et al. based on radial-velocity measurements. The orbit of the planet must be steeply inclined to the plane of the sky (i ≥ 70°). Uniform series of position measurements obtained at the Dearborn Observatory, US Naval Observatory, and Pulkovo Observatory, the HIPPARCOS parallax, and the relative radial velocities obtained by Hauser and Marcy at the Lick Observatory are used to calculate the elements of possible orbits for the ADS 12815 stars using the apparent motion parameters method. The corresponding periods are more than 20 000 yr, the semi-major axes more than 900 AU, and the eccentricities more than 0.65. All possible orbits are steeply inclined to the Galactic plane. The obtained family of orbits is in better agreement with observations than the family calculated by Hauser and Marcy.     

日食诱发厄尔尼诺现象的热-动力机制

潮汐变化引起的大气圈、海洋圈和岩石圈差异旋转的计算结果显示:地球扁率变大时,赤道面的高速气流和洋流产生与地球自转方向相反的由东向西运动,类似赤道东风带;地球扁率变小时,大气和海洋赤道突起减小并向两极流动,在南北纬35°线以上的中高纬度地区,形成两极突起,该计算结果与全球风带分布完全符合。综合分析表明,太阳在赤道面时,赤道东风加强,海洋南北赤道暖流加强;太阳在南北回归线时,西风带加强。日、地、月在同一直线上时将增强这一效应。日月大潮引起的大气、海洋和固体地球的差异旋转是日食多次发生在赤道引发拉尼娜事件产生的动力学机制。