从"全球冰川"到"雪球假说"——关于新元古代冰川事件的最新研究

新元古代冰期地层不同于显生宙冰期地层，近年来，一些学者提出了雪球假说，掀起了关于新元古代冰期环境特征与因演化的研究热潮，成为当前地学前沿的一个热门课题。本轮研究的一个突出特点，是它的高度综合性，涉及岩石圈，水圈，大气圈和生物圈，此外还牵攫到天体运行等学科。研究重点有新元古代冰川作用的低纬和低海拔特征。与Rodinia超大陆裂解的关系，冰室效应和温室效应的矛盾运动，海洋封冻的探索，碳酸盐岩岩帽的成因，碳，硫，锶等同位素的峰谷变化的环境含义，冰期地层中铁矿的成因，新元古代冰期的次数争议，雪球理论的数值模拟和冰期环境特征及其变化与生物演化，特别是与早寒武世生物大辐射的关系等。我国南方已成为研究新元古代冰期地层及其与寒武系生物大辐射关系的重要地区之一。     

新疆库鲁克塔格地区新元古代末期汉格尔乔克冰期成因新证据

新疆是世界上保存有完整的新元古代三大冰期的地区之一，有关新疆新元古代最末期冰期为大陆冰川早就提出，但由于证据不充分而一直受到质疑。汉格尔乔克冰碛砾岩具有典型的冰川“落石”，属于典型的冰川沉积，对其上覆的帽碳酸盐岩进行系统的碳、氧同佗素研究证明，帽碳酸盐岩具有全球新元古代冰后碳酸盐岩沉积类似的碳同位素负异常特征，特别是在帽碳酸盐岩底部发现具有典型的大气淡水成因的白云岩，证明汉格尔乔克冰期为大陆冰川。     

新元古代的"雪球地球"

“雪球地球”假说的提出解释了一些新元古代冰川现象，如低纬度和低海拔冰川沉积、帽碳酸盐岩、负的碳酸盐δ^13C漂移和BIF铁矿等现象。尽管有不同的假说与解释，但“雪球地球”最为流行。“雪球地球”事件被认为起因于地球系统的变化，如Rodinia超大陆的裂解、超级地幔柱的活动及古地磁真极的漂移等。“雪球地球”的极端气候环境变化，促进了生命的演化，造成了寒武纪生物大爆发。     

新元古代晚期盖帽碳酸盐岩的成因与“雪球地球”的终结机制

新元古代晚期约635 Ma的地球发育了到达赤道附近的冰川作用，地质记录上表现为代表寒冷气候的冰期沉积杂砾岩，直接被代表温暖环境的碳酸盐岩层（常称盖帽碳酸盐岩）覆盖。由于盖帽碳酸盐岩奇特的岩石学和地球化学特征，引起了对其成因认识的巨大争论，提出了“雪球地球”和“甲烷渗漏”等假说。“雪球地球”假设可以解释一些令人困惑的地学现象，如低纬度和低海拔冰川沉积、盖帽碳酸盐岩、碳酸盐δ13C负漂移和条带状铁矿层等，但许多科学家对此提出了质疑。最近对盖帽碳酸盐岩的δ13C分析结果（最低达-41‰）、盖帽碳酸盐岩发育的类似现代冷泉碳酸盐岩沉积组构等似乎支持“甲烷渗漏”假说。     

新元古代大冰期及其诱发因素

简要介绍了由美国一些科学家最近提出的,引起国际地球科学、环境科学、生命科学及宇宙科学界广泛关注的新元古代雪球假说,及其近期研究情况。根据我国扬子地层分区和江南地层分区震旦系的沉积特征,对新元古代古气候骤变,大冰期的发生与消亡及其诱发因素作了初步探讨。     

塔里木盆地西南缘叶城地区新元古代冰期事件

新元古代冰期事件记录了“雪球地球”事件重要的地质信息。塔里木盆地周缘新元古代冰碛岩地层露头发育,是研究新元古代冰期事件的理想基地。由于发育多套新元古代火山岩,盆地东北缘库鲁克塔格地区新元古代冰碛岩地层时代已获得较多年代学数据约束;但盆地周缘其他地区新元古代冰碛岩地层公开报道年代学数据较少,不能准确限定其沉积时代,导致冰期事件对比存在争论。为此,本文选择塔里木盆地研究程度较低的西南缘叶城地区新元古代冰碛岩地层,开展岩石学、同位素年代学、岩石地球化学等研究,明确其冰期沉积特征,约束其沉积时代,开展冰期事件对比,讨论古气候风化条件等。南华系波龙组和雨塘组冰碛岩地层具有较低的化学蚀变指数(CIA),分别代表新元古代2次寒冷的冰川气候记录。冰川沉积及其相邻层位的碎屑锆石U-Pb年代学数据显示,波龙冰期的起始年龄晚于(710±13) Ma,与全球Sturtian冰期对应;雨塘冰期的起始年龄不会早于(656±18) Ma,其结束年龄可被南华系顶界年龄635 Ma或上覆震旦系库尔卡克组碎屑锆石年龄(634±9) Ma限定,与全球Marinoan冰期对应。     

皖南蓝田组碳酸盐岩碳和氧同位素地球化学研究

为了认识新元古代雪球地球事件之后地球表面气候和环境的变化,前人对华南震旦系地层中的陡山沱组和灯影组灰岩进行了大量的古生物地层学和稳定同位素地球化学研究,特别对碳同位素漂移与冰期之间的对应关系提出了很多假说和模型.本文就出露在皖南地区的震旦系蓝田组灰岩进行了方解石和白云石的碳氧同位素分析,分析结果为其沉积环境研究提供了重要的地球化学依据.     

纳米比亚达马拉造山带新元古界朝斯组条带状铁建造的特征及成因

以纳米比亚北部台地区的新元古代成冰期朝斯(Chuos)组沉积变质型条带状铁建造为研究对象,通过研究该区的大地构造背景、矿物学、岩石学、地球化学等特征,针对该区域朝斯组地层特征、构造历史、结构构造、矿物组成、形成环境及成因等方面进行研究,结合"雪球地球"假说,认为研究区含铁建造与成冰期的一定条件下的裂谷作用形成海盆和热液组分有直接成因联系,在雪球期内的氧化还原环境多变的裂谷大洋、海底热液流体、大陆风化作用、海洋生物圈变化、大气与海水的物质组分交换等多重因素的作用下,最终导致了含铁条带建造的沉积层序的形成。     

塔里木地块新元古代冰期事件研究进展

新元古代冰碛岩地层记录了“雪球地球”极端气候事件重要的地质信息。塔里木地块东北缘库鲁克塔格地区、西北缘阿克苏地区和西南缘叶城地区新元古代冰碛岩地层露头发育,是研究新元古代冰期事件的理想基地。文章基于塔里木地块周缘新元古界详实的野外地质调查工作,综合了地层学、同位素年代学、岩石地球化学等研究,聚焦冰碛岩地层沉积时代这一核心问题,建立新元古代冰期格架。冰期事件对比显示,贝义西冰期(库鲁克塔格地区)相当于Kaigas冰期(国际),阿勒通沟冰期(库鲁克塔格地区)、巧恩布拉克冰期(阿克苏地区)、波龙冰期(叶城地区)相当于Sturtian冰期(国际),特瑞爱肯冰期(库鲁克塔格地区)、尤尔美那克冰期(阿克苏地区)、雨塘冰期(叶城地区)相当于Marinoan冰期(国际),汉格尔乔克冰期(库鲁克塔格地区)相当于Gaskiers冰期(国际)。同时基于冰期事件对比关系,建议根据国际地层委员会的最新划分方案将塔里木地块南华系底界调整为与全球性Sturtian冰期沉积底界相当的层位。通过探讨新元古代冰期事件与古老烃源岩发育的耦合关系,分析了新元古界优质烃源岩的发育潜力,指出塔里木地块新元古界具备良好的油气成藏地...     

塔里木盆地库鲁克塔格地区新元古代冰碛岩锆石SHRIMP U—Pb年龄新证据

塔里木盆地库鲁克塔格地区新元古代冰碛岩剖面是目前世界各大陆中唯一发育有4套新元古代冰碛岩和多期火成岩事件的剖面。近年来。“雪球事件”的提出为全球新元古代冰碛岩的研究注入了新的活力,各国地质学家根据新元古代冰碛岩在全球各大洲发育的特点、同位素年龄扣C／O、Sr同位素在新元古界划分出4个冰期。因此,新疆库鲁克塔格地区新元古界发育的4套冰碛岩的沉积特征、沉积环境和年代地层学研究的进展始终为各国地质学家所注目。本次获得的库鲁克塔格地区特瑞爱肯组的锆石SHKIMPU-Pb新年龄．为完善库鲁克塔格地区新元古代冰碛岩的年代地层学提供了新的证据。     

A problem of total glaciations on the Earth in the Late Precambrian

Ideas of global glaciations on the Earth repeatedly emerged in geology since the middle of the 19th century, but they all did not withstand the test of time. The hypothesis of snowball Earth that suggests long-lasted continuous glaciations over the entire land and oceans in the Late Riphean and Vendian became a popular topic of discussions worldwide. These glaciations must last continuously 15 million years or more owing to enormous stability of climate on the “White Earth,” and one can expect their cessation only when CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is getting by several orders of magnitude higher in the course of volcanic eruptions. However, many sections of the Late Precambrian glacial deposits evidence repeated alternations of glacial and interglacial events of variable rank and oscillations of glaciers. Consequently, liquid water existed on the Earth, hydrological cycle had not been interrupted, and development of phototrophic phytoplankton, the eukaryotic organisms inclusive, was always in progress. These facts and results of the climate mathematical simulation are inconsistent with the concept of long continuous glaciations over the globe and their consequences. Paleomagnetic data represent main starting point of the snowball Earth hypothesis, although they are to a great extent still of insufficient validity for the Precambrian. Equitable criticism of the hypothesis weak sides turns sometimes into denying all the glacial periods of the Late Proterozoic, when tillites are regarded in majority as deposits of subaqueous slumps and debris flows accumulated on walls of oceanic rifts prograding along splitting lines into the Rodinia continent. Doubtless marks of glaciations in the sedimentary succession are regarded therewith as heterochronous indications of local mountain glaciers on risen shoulders of prograding rifts. Widespread occurrence of the Late Precambrian discrete glacial horizons on the platforms means, however, that glaciations of that time have been associated not always with the rifts and consisted of separate glacial events. Glaciogenic horizons comparable in thickness and structure with those of the Phanerozoic Eonothem are also indicative of discrete glacial periods in the Precambrian. Being confined predominantly to the Late Precambrian succession of rifts, these horizons characterize a high burial potential of these structures, whereas outside them glacial horizons of lesser thickness could be easily subjected to erosion. The hypothesis of snowball Earth is inadequately consistent with well-known facts and needs in additional substantiation. There are also grounds to think that oceans have not been completely covered with ice at the time of Precambrian glaciations.     

The snowball Earth hypothesis: testing the limits of global change

The gradual discovery that late Neoproterozoic ice sheets extended to sea level near the equator poses a palaeoenvironmental conundrum. Was the Earth's orbital obliquity > 60° (making the tropics colder than the poles) for 4.0 billion years following the lunar‐forming impact, or did climate cool globally for some reason to the point at which runaway ice‐albedo feedback created a `snowball' Earth? The high‐obliquity hypothesis does not account for major features of the Neoproterozoic glacial record such as the abrupt onsets and terminations of discrete glacial events, their close association with large (> 10‰) negative δ<sup>13</sup>C shifts in seawater proxies, the deposition of strange carbonate layers (`cap carbonates') globally during post‐glacial sea‐level rise, and the return of large sedimentary iron formations, after a 1.1 billion year hiatus, exclusively during glacial events. A snowball event, on the other hand, should begin and end abruptly, particularly at lower latitudes. It should last for millions of years, because outgassing must amass an intense greenhouse in order to overcome the ice albedo. A largely ice‐covered ocean should become anoxic and reduced iron should be widely transported in solution and precipitated as iron formation wherever oxygenic photosynthesis occurred, or upon deglaciation. The intense greenhouse ensures a transient post‐glacial regime of enhanced carbonate and silicate weathering, which should drive a flux of alkalinity that could quantitatively account for the world‐wide occurrence of cap carbonates. The resulting high rates of carbonate sedimentation, coupled with the kinetic isotope effect of transferring the CO₂ burden to the ocean, should drive down the δ¹³C of seawater, as is observed. If cap carbonates are the `smoke' of a snowball Earth, what was the `gun'? In proposing the original Neoproterozoic snowball Earth hypothesis, Joe Kirschvink postulated that an unusual preponderance of land masses in the middle and low latitudes, consistent with palaeomagnetic evidence, set the stage for snowball events by raising the planetary albedo. Others had pointed out that silicate weathering would most likely be enhanced if many continents were in the tropics, resulting in lower atmospheric CO₂ and a colder climate. Negative δ¹³C shifts of 10–20‰ precede glaciation in many regions, giving rise to speculation that the climate was destabilized by a growing dependency on greenhouse methane, stemming ultimately from the same unusual continental distribution. Given the existing palaeomagnetic, geochemical and geological evidence for late Neoproterozoic climatic shocks without parallel in the Phanerozoic, it seems inevitable that the history of life was impacted, perhaps profoundly so.     

The stratotype and facies of the glacial Lower Vendian Nichatka Formation,Chara River basin,Central Siberia

Sediments of the Nichatka Formation are facially studied and thoroughly described, the sections are correlated, and the subformations are recognized. The formation represents a key stratigraphic unit to reveal the origin of the Central Siberian glacial horizon and to correlate it with glacial horizons in other regions of the world, namely, with the Laplandian Horizon of the Lower Vendian, Nantou and Marino tillites, etc. The Nichatka Formation is correlated with the glacial Bolshoi Patom (Dzhemkukan) Formation of the Vendian reference section at the Ura Uplift. Unlike the latter, it is mainly composed of continental glacial deposits and is marked by a complex facies composition. The glacial origin of the Nichatka Formation is reliably determined on the basis of a set of diagnostic characters. This permits a more complete reconstruction of the Early Vendian depositional environments. In addition to typical basal tillites and marginal moraine deposits, the formation includes glaciolacustrine and fluvioglacial sediments along with aquatillites, allotillites, and the glacial fan, including subaqueous, deposits.     

Palaeoenvironments and weathering regime of the Neoproterozoic Squantum ‘Tillite’, Boston Basin: no evidence of a snowball Earth

The snowball Earth hypothesis describes episodes of Neoproterozoic global glaciations, when ice sheets reached sea‐level, the ocean froze to great depth and biota were decimated, accompanied by a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle. Recent studies of sedimentary successions and Earth systems modelling, however, have brought the hypothesis under considerable debate. The Squantum ‘Tillite’ (Boston Basin, USA), is one of the best constrained snowball Earth successions with respect to age and palaeogeography, and it is suitable to test the hypothesis for the Gaskiers glaciation. The approach used here was to assess the palaeoenvironmental conditions at the type locality of the Squantum Member through an analysis of sedimentary facies and weathering regime (chemical index of alteration). The stratigraphic succession with a total thickness of ca 330 m documents both glacial and non‐glacial depositional environments with a cool‐temperate glacial to temperate non‐glacial climate weathering regime. The base of the succession is composed of thin diamictites and mudstones that carry evidence of sedimentation from floating glacial ice, interbedded with inner shelf sandstones and mudstones. Thicker diamictites interbedded with thin sandstones mark the onset of gravity flow activity, followed by graded sandstones documenting channellized mass gravity flow events. An upward decrease in terrigenous supply is evident, culminating in deep‐water mudstones with a non‐glacial chemical weathering signal. Renewed terrigenous supply and iceberg sedimentation is evident at the top of the succession, beyond which exposure is lost. The glacially influenced sedimentary facies at Squantum Head are more consistent with meltwater dominated alpine glaciation or small local ice caps. The chemical index of alteration values of 61 to 75 for the non‐volcanic rocks requires significant exposure of land surfaces to allow chemical weathering. Therefore, extreme snowball Earth conditions with a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle do not seem to apply to the Gaskiers glaciation.     

Major shoreline retreat and sediment starvation following Snowball Earth

While cap dolostones are integral to the Snowball Earth hypothesis, the current depositional model does not account for multiple geological observations. Here we propose a model that rationalises palaeomagnetic, sequence‐stratigraphic and sedimentological data and supports rapid deglaciation with protracted cap dolostone precipitation. The Snowball Earth hypothesis posits that a runaway ice‐albedo can explain the climate paradox of Neoproterozoic glacial deposits occurring at low palaeolatitudes. This scenario invokes volcanic degassing to increase atmospheric greenhouse gases to a critical threshold that overcomes the albedo effect and brings the planet back from the ice‐covered state. Once this occurs, Earth should shift rapidly from a snowball to an extreme greenhouse. However, cap dolostone units overlying glacial sediments, typically interpreted as transgressive deposits, exhibit multiple magnetic reversals indicating they accumulated in >10⁵ years. By reviewing modern post‐glacial systems, sequence stratigraphic concepts and principles of sedimentology, we suggest that cap dolostones are not restricted to the transgression but rather represent sediment starvation following a major landward shoreline migration associated with the demise of Snowball Earth. Thus, the duration in which cap dolostone accumulated is not directly coupled to the timescale of the Snowball Earth deglaciation.     

碧口群内冰川沉积及冰期的划分与对比

碧口群内前人曾怀疑为冰碛岩的一套岩石,已取得了大量冰川证据,肯定了冰川作用的存在。其时代属早震旦世。据沉积特征、层位及上下接触关系等,将其划为长安、南沱两个冰期,南沱冰期又进一步划分为两个亚冰期,并分别与国内外有关地区作了对比。     

库鲁克塔格地区震旦系冰碛岩沉积环境及意义

库鲁克塔格地区震旦系发育三层冰碛岩,分别是贝义西组、特瑞爱肯组、汉格尔乔克组.通过对冰碛岩沉积特点的研究,分析沉积环境.贝义西组冰碛砾岩夹于细粒碎屑岩及火山岩间,冰碛砾岩呈块状、无层理,为海洋冰川沉积;特瑞爱肯组主要为冰碛泥砾岩和冰碛砾岩夹粉砂岩、灰岩,块状、无层理、可见大漂砾,为冰下沉积;汉格尔乔克组主要为冰碛泥砾岩和冰碛砾岩,偶夹杂砂砾岩、砂岩透镜体,块状、无层理,为冰下沉积,顶部可见冰碛纹泥层,为冰湖沉积.     

The Eocambrian glaciation in Norway

Summary Traces of the Eocambrian glaciation are found in three district in Norwegian territory, 1) in the south-east, at and north of the lake MjØsa, 2) in north-east, in Finnmark, and 3) in Spitzbergen. The two first districts are connected by a number of localities in Sweden, along the margin of the Caledonian Mountain chain. The glacial beds form the base of the Eocambrian, which is taken as the lowest part of the Cambrian. They generally rests with a more or less pronounced disconformity on dolomitic rocks of the Esmarkian (the upper part of the Riphean system). In some cases they rest directly on the crystalline Precambrian basement. This is due either to Esmarkian tectonic movements, to deep glacial erosion or both. The glacial beds are varied lithologically, but the characteristic rock types are tillites, boulder-shales and varved mudtones. All tillites are not regarded as fossil moraines, formed by ice movement. Some of them are supposed to have been formed by dropping of material from floating ice, either glacier ice or sea ice in a marine or brackish environment. The wide and uniform distribution of the tillite seems to preclude an interpretation as mudflows. Comparison with the Quaternary glacial sediments have given interesting results, and add to the evidence for a glacial origin of the tillites. It is also indicated that the direction of transport will depend on whether the material was rafted with glacial ice, or with drifting sea ice. Much more work has to be done both on the sedimentology, stratigraphy and paleomagnetism of the Norwegian Eocambrian glacial deposits and comparable sediments in order to get a clear and coherent picture of the glaciation, but the present evidence seem to indicate that it was part of a world-wide glaciation of even greater extent than the Permo-Carboniferous and Quarternary ones.     

扬子北部三峡地区南沱组冰碛岩的物源特征:锆石年龄和地球化学证据

扬子陆块新元古代地层发育完整并广泛分布,三峡地区南沱组冰碛岩是扬子北部南华纪的冰成杂砾岩,不整合地覆盖在新元古代黄陵花岗岩之上.南沱组冰碛岩成分复杂,分选性差,缺乏可对比的标志,其沉积时代和物源组成研究较少且存在争议.对南沱组冰碛岩开展锆石U-Pb定年工作,得到最年轻的锆石年龄为706±7 Ma,印证了南沱组沉积时代应不早于700 Ma的说法,并可与Marinoan冰期对应.所获得锆石U-Pb年龄谱峰值主要分为~3.0 Ga,2.5~2.3 Ga,2.05~1.95 Ga和900~700 Ma,反映了扬子陆块4次地壳再造事件,其中古元古代和太古代年龄与崆岭杂岩相似,900~800 Ma和800~700 Ma的锆石年龄与附近黄陵花岗岩和扬子北缘岩体一致.冰碛砂岩的微量元素和同位素组成分异明显,可能是扬子北缘岩体、黄陵花岗岩和崆岭杂岩不同程度混合的结果.南沱组冰碛岩中包裹的花岗质砾石表现出不同的微量元素特征,具有偏低的稀土含量和亏损的重稀土组成,结合其锆石U-Pb年龄和Sr-Nd同位素特征,这些花岗质砾石主体可能来自于附近黄陵花岗岩和崆岭岩基.南沱组冰碛岩的物质组成特征反映了新元古时期,扬子地区强烈的裂谷岩浆作用所导致的北高南低的地势环境.