Mean Structure of Tropical Cyclones Making Landfall in Mainland China

The mean kinematic and thermodynamic structures of tropical cyclones （TCs） making landfall in main-land China are examined by using sounding data from 1998 to 2009. It is found that TC landfall is usually accompanied with a decrease in low-level wind speed, an expansion of the radius of strong wind, weakening of the upper-level warm core, and drying of the mid-tropospheric air. On average, the warm core of the TCs dissipates 24 h after landfall. The height of the maximum low-level wind and the base of the stable layer both increase with the increased distance to the TC center;however, the former is always higher than the latter. In particular, an asymmetric structure of the TC after landfall is found. The kinematic and thermodynamic structures across various areas of TC circulation diff er, especially over the left-front and right-rear quadrants （relative to the direction of TC motion）. In the left-front quadrant, strong winds locate at a smaller radius, the upper-level temperature is warmer with the warm core extending into a deep layer, while the wet air occupies a shallow layer. In the right-rear quadrant, strong wind and wet air dwell in an area that is broader and deeper, and the warmest air is situated farther away from the TC center.     

层状云微物理参数反演及其辐射效应的个例研究

利用毫米波云雷达、微波辐射计联合反演方法,对2015年11月11日安徽寿县的一次层状云过程的云参数进行了反演,将所得云参数加入到SBDART辐射传输模式中,进行辐射通量计算,并将计算的地面辐射通量与观测的地面辐射通量进行了对比分析。研究表明:1)利用毫米波雷达和微波辐射计数据联合反演的云参数比较可靠;2)利用SBDART模式并结合反演的云参数,可以准确实时地计算地面及其他高度层的长短波辐射通量;3)在反演的云参数中,光学厚度对地面各种辐射通量的影响是最大的,云层的光学厚度越大,到达地面的太阳短波辐射越小,地面反射短波辐射也越小。另外云底温度越高,云体向下发射的红外长波辐射越大。地面向上的长波辐射是地面温度的普朗克函数,随地面温度而变;4)云对地面的短波辐射强迫为负值,对地面有降温的作用。云对地面的长波辐射强迫是一个正值,对地面有一个增温的作用;5)云对地面的净辐射强迫随时间变化很大,它的正负与太阳高度角和云参数有关。     

Impacts of the diurnal cycle of radiation on tropical cyclone intensification and structure

To investigate the impacts of the diurnal cycle on tropical cyclones （TCs）,a set of idealized simulations were conducted by specifying different radiation （i.e.,nighttime-only,daytime-only,full diurnal cycle）.It was found that,for an initially weak storm,it developed faster during nighttime than daytime.The impacts of radiation were not only on TC intensification,but also on TC structure and size.The nighttime storm tended to have a larger size than its daytime counterparts.During nighttime,the radiative cooling steepened the lapse rate and thus reduced the static stability in cloudy regions,enhancing convection.Diabatic heating associated with outer convection induced boundary layer inflows,which led to outward expansion of tangential winds and thus increased the storm size.     

TOVS中热带气旋结构及其在数值预报中的应用

利用TOVS资料分析了2000年几个热带气旋的结构,发现与经典概念模型所描述的结构有一定的差异,主要表现在:(1)在水平结构上,非对称结构呈多样性,高度场的低层低值中心(或高层高值中心)与温度场的高值中心并不一定重合;(2)在垂直结构上,高度场的低层低值距平与高层高值距平的配置也呈多样性,特别是存在上、下层距平中心倾斜,或高层只是处于高压区的边缘,不存在明显的高值距平中心与热带气旋相对应.还参照TOVS中的热带气旋结构,进行了修订热带气旋数值预报模式系统中人造台风模型(台风BOGUS)结构的研究,发现修订后的台风BOGUS 能够更好地与环境场协调,并且能对热带气旋的路径预报取得较好的效果.这一方面说明了台风BOGUS的结构对其路径预报有较大的影响,另一方面也说明利用TOVS资料中的热带气旋结构能改善热带气旋路径预报.这也为台风BOGUS的修订和发展提供了依据.     

A study of convective systems, water vapor and top of the atmosphere cloud radiative forcing over the Indian Ocean using INSAT-1B and ERBE data

Summary The distribution of cloud radiative forcing (CRF) at the top of the atmosphere over the Indian Ocean is investigated using satellite observations. Two key regions are considered: The eastern Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal which experience maximum upper-level cloudiness in winter and summer respectively. It is found that longwave CRF in the Bay of Bengal during summer is similar to that over the eastern Indian Ocean during winter. On the other hand shortwave CRF magnitude is larger in the Bay of Bengal. These differences explain the net CRF difference between the two regions. The stronger shortwave forcing seems to be related to the Upper-Level Cloudiness being larger over the Bay than over the eastern Indian Ocean. The reasons for the longwave CRF similarities are analysed in more details. Using the results from a convective system classification method, it is first shown that the longwave radiative properties of the individual systems do not vary much from one region to another. The distribution of the different kind of systems, a proxy for the vertical cloudiness structure, does not either indicate strong difference between the regions. It is then proposed that the substantial precipitable water vapour amount observed over the Bay of Bengal damps the effects of the upper-level cloudiness on radiation compared to the relatively dryer eastern Indian Ocean area; yielding to similar LW CRF in both region despite more Upper-Level Cloudiness over the Bay of Bengal. These observations are supported by idealised radiative transfer computations. The distribution of cloudiness and radiative forcing is then analysed over the whole tropical Indian Ocean for each season. July is characterized by a low longwave CRF regime (relative to January) over the most convectively active part of the Ocean. The non linear damping effect of water vapor on longwave CRF is also shown to contribute to this regime. Overall, this study reaffirms the need for simultaneous documentation of the cloud systems properties together with their moist environment in order to understand the overall net radiative signature of tropical convection at the top of the atmosphere (TOA).     

辐射对高原涡形成和发展影响的模拟研究

已有研究表明辐射对热带气旋发生发展具有明显调制作用,高原涡与热带气旋有类似的暖心低压结构,辐射在高原涡发生发展过程中的作用也值得探讨。本文利用ERA-Interim再分析资料,通过中尺度数值模式WRF-ARW研究了辐射日变化对高原涡个例发展的影响机制。模拟结果表明,太阳短波辐射对高原涡的发生发展具有明显的调制作用。控制试验（CTL;即保留太阳辐射日变化）较好的再现了高原涡的发展过程。在去掉短波辐射过程的夜间试验（All_night）中,前期高原涡发展速度较快。而在白天（All_day）试验中,短波辐射过程抑制了高原涡的发展。诊断分析表明,夜间长波辐射冷却加强对流层温度递减率,减弱大气静力稳定度;同时,大气温度的降低使得夜间相对湿度增大,有利于对流层低层出现位势不稳定,进而促使高原涡的形成和发展。反之,太阳短波辐射有利于对流层高层增温,加强大气静力稳定度,从而抑制对流活动发展。夜间低层辐合更为强盛,有利于上升运动的加强并诱发高原涡形成;非平衡项结果显示,在高原涡环流中心区域存在正值区,而低涡四周为明显的负值区。从动力学和热力学特征来看,高原涡的发展与热带气旋具有一定的相似性。     

Changes in cloudiness over the Amazon rainforests during the last two decades: diagnostic and potential causes

This study shows a decrease of seasonal mean convection, cloudiness and an increase of surface shortwave down-welling radiation during 1984?C2007 over the Amazon rainforests based on the analysis of satellite-retrieved clouds and surface radiative flux data. These changes are consistent with an increase in surface temperature, increased atmospheric stability, and reduction of moisture transport to the Amazon based on in situ surface and upper air meteorological data and reanalysis data. These changes appear to link to the expansion of the western Pacific warm pool during the December?CFebruary season, to the positive phase of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and increase of SST over the eastern Pacific SST during the March?CMay season, and to an increase of the tropical Atlantic meridional SST gradient and an expansion of the western Pacific warm pool during September?CNovember season. The resultant increase of surface solar radiation during all but the dry season in the Amazon could contribute to the observed increases in rainforest growth during recent decades.     

The Uncertainty of Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Structure Based on Different Parameterization Schemes of Planetary Boundary Layer

Based on different parameterization schemes of planetary boundary layer (PBL), the uncertainty of intensity and structure of the Super-strong Typhoon Rammasun (1409) is investigated using the WRF model (v3.4) with six PBL parameterization schemes. Results indicate that PBL uncertainty leads to the uncertainty in tropical cyclone (TC) prediction, which increases with forecast time. The uncertainty in TC prediction is mainly reflected in the uncertainty in TC intensity, with significant differences in the TC intensity forecasts using various PBL schemes. The uncertainty in TC prediction is also reflected in the uncertainty in TC structures. Greater intensity is accompanied by smaller vortex width, tighter vortex structure, stronger wind in the near-surface layer and middle and lower troposphere, stronger inflow (outflow) wind at the lower (upper) levels, stronger vertical upward wind, smaller thickness of the eye wall, smaller outward extension of the eye wall, and warmer warm core at the upper levels of eye. PBL height, surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux are important factors that cause the uncertainty in TC intensity and structure. The more surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux and the lower PBL height, the faster TC development and the stronger TC intensity.     

The impact of logging on the surrounding flow in a managed forest

The influence of a freshly logged area in a managed pine forest on the flow field is investigated by comparing sodar wind profile data over the forest canopy with the synoptic wind field extracted from North American Regional Reanalysis, National Centers for Environmental Prediction. As a consequence of the pressure gradient arising from the sharp temperature difference between the clearcut and the surrounding uncut forests, the local wind direction over the forest measured with the sodar departs dramatically from the prevailing synoptic wind direction when the latter is transverse to the clearcut-sodar direction. Sodar measurements also indicate systematic strong updrafts during daytime followed by nighttime downdrafts with wind coming from the logged area. This suggests the presence of horizontal advection carrying daytime warm air (or nighttime cool air) from the clearcut to the forested area. This paper also examines the influence of wind velocity, clearcut fetch, and solar radiation on locally generated circulations and advection. The presence of local circulations arising from contrasting neighboring surface characteristics well outside the footprint is of particular relevance for atmospheric flux sites where robust surface?Catmosphere exchange values are sought. This study highlights the high level of circumspection required at the time of identifying locations for flux sites. It also suggests vigilant monitoring of the surrounding landscape during eddy?Cflux measurements particularly in actively managed landscapes.     

兰州冬季气溶胶的短波加热效应及其对混合层发展的影响

综合考虑无云天气条件下，气溶胶和大气中各种吸收气体对太阳辐射的影响，建立了一个气溶胶大气的短波加热率模式，研究了兰州冬季气溶胶的短波加热效应。计算结果表明:气溶胶吸收太阳辐射而加热大气的作用是显著的。在上述工作的基础上，建立了一个完全闭合的混合层发展模式，利用数值方法探讨了气溶胶的辐射效应对混合层发展的影响。计算发现大气中气溶胶的增加会抑制混合层的发展，使混合层内的平均位温减小。     

我国西北大气沙尘气溶胶的辐射效应

利用HEIFE地面辐射平衡观测资料和同期NOAA-11/AVHRR卫星遥感资料定量估算春季我国西北大气沙尘的辐射效应。大气沙尘减小地面净辐射冷却地面,对地-气系统和大气的辐射效应均与地表反照率有关,严重浑浊的沙尘大气在沙漠为短波加热和长波冷却,在绿洲则相反,但净效应都是加热。文中给出了4月大气浑浊度系数约由0.1增大到0.6,在沙漠和绿洲上空沙尘层（850～600 hPa）内大气的附加短波、长波和净加热/冷却率。     

不同形状冰晶权重假定对冰云光学和辐射特性的影响

在BCC_RAD辐射传输模式和包含多形状冰晶粒子的冰云光学性质参数化方案的基础上,详细分析了不同冰晶粒子权重选取对冰云光学和辐射特性的影响。结果显示,不同形状冰晶粒子权重的选取对长波带平均消光系数、单次散射比、不对称因子和短波带平均不对称因子均有较大的影响。冰晶粒子权重选取对长波辐射通量有很大影响:对长波向下辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云底处造成高达10.50 W/m2的差别;对长波向上辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云顶处造成高达15.05 W/m2的差别。冰晶粒子权重选择对短波辐射通量也存在较大影响:对短波向下辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云底处造成高达12.48 W/m2的差别;对短波向上辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云顶处造成高达10.23 W/m2的差别。冰晶粒子权重选择对长波加热率影响较大,在云顶处和云底处分别可达1.31和-2.06 K/d。研究表明,不同形状冰晶粒子权重的选取对冰云光学性质和辐射计算均有较大的影响,在长波区间尤其明显。      

Measurements of diurnal heat exchange on the Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peruvian Andes

Summary Measurements of the surface heat budget were conducted on an ice cap in the Andes of Southern Peru at 5645 m during an expedition in July 1977. Because of the high surface albedo, net software radiative gain is nearly offset by the longwave loss in the average over the diurnal cycle. The diurnal temperature wave has at the surface an amplitude of about 5°C, and by 50 cm depth this is nearly dampened out. During the day, the shortwave radiative gain is in part used to balance the longwave loss, some heat is stored in the top snow layer and lost by sensible heat transfer to the overlying atmosphere, and the greater part fuels the sublimation. At night, the longwave radiative loss is not completely compensated by heat depletion and downward directed sensible heat transfer. This deficit is made up by the downward transfer of latent heat, resulting in heat release at the surface and deposition. Regarding the mass balance, the nighttime deposition approximately cancels the daytime sublimation. At lower elevations of the ice cap, albedo is much less, allowing larger absorption of solar radiation. As a consequence, more energy is available for ablation. Melting occurs during the day, so that re-freezing and concurrent latent heat release can help to compensate the longwave radiative loss at night.With 4 Figures     

A CLIMATOLOGY OF EXTRATROPICAL TRANSITION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC

Based on best-track data and JRA-25 reanalysis, a climatology of western North Pacific extratropical transition (ET) of tropical cyclone (TC) is presented in this paper. It was found that 35% (318 out of 912) of all TCs underwent ET during 1979–2008. The warm-season (June through September) ETs account for 64% of all ET events with the most occurrence in September. The area 120°E–150°E and 20°N–40°N is the most favorable region for ET onsets in western North Pacific. The TCs experience ET at latitudes 30°N–40°N and have the greatest intensity in contrast to other latitude bands. The distribution of ET onset locations shows obviously meridional migration in different seasons. A cyclone phase space (CPS) method was used to analyze the TC evolution during ET. Except for some cases of abnormal ET at relatively high latitudes, typical phase evolution paths—along which TC firstly showed thermal asymmetry and an upper-level cold core and then lost its low-level warm core—can be used to describe the main features of ET processes in western North Pacific. Some seasonal variations of ET evolution paths in CPS were also found at low latitudes south of 15°N, which suggests different ET onset mechanisms there. Further composite analysis concluded that warm-season ETs have generally two types of evolutions, but only one type in cold season (October through next May). The first type of warm-season ETs has less baroclinicity due to long distance between the TC and upper-level mid-latitude system. However, significant interactions between a mid-latitude upper -level trough and TC, of either approaching or being absorbed into the trough, and TC’s relations with downstream and upstream upper-level jets, are the fingerprints for both a second type of warm-season ETs and almost all the cold-season ETs. For each type of ETs, detailed structural characteristics as well as precipitation distribution are illustrated by latitude.     

气溶胶辐射效应在华东地区一次雾霾过程中的作用

利用WRF/Chem(Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with Chemistry)模拟了2013年12月华东地区一次雾、霾事件气溶胶辐射反馈效应对气象场和大气质量的影响。通过3个不同气溶胶浓度设置的试验区分气溶胶浓度不同辐射效应的影响。比较不同试验得出,本次雾、霾过程中,不论是气溶胶直接、半直接辐射效应还是间接效应均使污染地区短波辐射减少、2 m气温下降、大气边界层高度降低,不利于水汽与污染物的扩散,空气污染进一步加重,雾结构进一步稳定,并使雾的持续时间延长,发展高度更高;对于化学场来说,气溶胶直接、半直接辐射效应使污染地区PM_(2.5)浓度增大、消光系数增大、氮氧化物浓度增大,臭氧浓度降低;间接辐射效应使PM_(2.5)浓度和消光系数进一步增大,氮氧化物、臭氧浓度降低。综上所述,气溶胶辐射效应能使大气污染加重,并利于雾的发生、发展。     

中国地区夏季平均加热率的时空分布特征

The latitude-altitude distributions of radiative fluxes and heating rates are investigated by utilizing CloudSat satellite data over China during summer. The Tibetan Plateau causes the downward shortwave fluxes of the lower atmosphere over central China to be smaller than the fluxes over southern and northern China by generating more clouds. The existence of a larger quantity of clouds over central China reflects a greater amount of solar radiation back into space. The vertical gradients of upward shortwave radiative fluxes in the atmosphere below 8 km are greater than those above 8 km. The latitudinal-altitude distributions of downward longwave radiative fluxes show a slantwise decreasing trend from low latitudes to high latitudes that gradually weaken in the downward direction. The upward longwave radiative fluxes also weaken in the upward direction but with larger gradients. The maximum heating rates by solar radiation and cooling rates by longwave infrared radiation are located over 28-40°N at 7-8 km mean sea level (MSL), and they are larger than the rates in the northern and southern regions. The heating and cooling rates match well both vertically and geographically.     

用GMS卫星资料研究我国东南部夏季短波云辐射强迫

利用中分辨率辐射计算模式（MODTRAN3）、站点的温压湿探空资料和美国标准大气的气溶胶、臭氧和微量气体参数，计算出无云情况下的地面总辐射，再与实测地面总辐射结合得出云对太阳的辐射强迫。同时利用GMS卫星资料反演出云辐射参数——反照率和亮温，分析了短波云辐射强迫和云辐射参数的关系，建立了两者的回归模式，用于估算地面资料缺少地区的短波云辐射强迫。     

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF AEROSOLS IN THE ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER ON THE CLIMATE*

The climatic effects of the atmospheric boundary aerosols are studied by the use of a three-dimensional climate model.Simulated results show that the climate states both at the surface and in the atmosphere change remarkably when the aerosols with different optical thicknesses and properties are introduced into the atmospheric boundary layer of the model.The aerosols absorb and scatter the solar shortwave radiation,therefore,they reduce the solar energy reaching the ground surface and decrease the surface and the soil temperatures.The temperature in the boundary layer increase because of the supplementary absorption of radiation by the boundary aerosols.In the atmosphere,the temperatures at all isobaric surfaces rise up except for the 100 hPa level.The atmospheric temperatures below the 500 hPa level are directly influenced by the boundary aerosols,while the atmospheric temperatures above the 500 hPa level are influenced by the heating due to convective condensation and the changes in the vertical motion field.Cyclonic differential circulations appear over the desert areas at the low levels,and anticyclonic differential circulations exist at the upper levels in the horizontal flow fields.The vertical motions change in correspondence with the differential circulations.The changes in precipitation are directly related to that of vertical motions.The mechanisms of climate effects of the boundary aerosols are also discussed in this paper.     

中国东北及邻近地区夏半年极端暖事件的时空和环流特征分析

夏半年（5—10月）是我国东北农作物生长的关键期,但偏高的气温尤其是大范围极端偏暖事件会对农业生产造成不良影响。基于强度、范围和持续时间等指标,对1980—2019年夏半年发生在我国东北及其邻近地区的16个极端暖事件进行分析。结果表明,东北及邻近地区的极端暖事件的强度和频率呈明显增加的趋势,夏初（5—6月）和秋初（9—10月）发生的暖事件频次较多。地面极端增暖事件发生时,东北区域的西北侧大陆地面低压异常和东侧西北太平洋海上高压异常导致东北地区出现异常偏南风及暖平流;对流层至平流层呈现出准正压的结构,最大位势高度异常中心多出现在250 hPa附近,其下方的正温度异常（暖气柱）会延伸到地面,有利于地面异常增温。暖事件发生时,地面增暖区位于对流层上层急流入口区的左侧,利于下沉气流出现。上述大气温压场扰动结构和环流特征通过影响短波辐射和绝热增温过程,共同导致地面极端暖事件的发生。在预报意义上,有90%以上的东北极端暖事件可以在250 hPa上至少提前10天追踪到位势高度的扰动信号。      

On the vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in southwest Germany

Summary Vertical profile of surface radiative fluxes in an area of heterogeneous terrain in south-west Germany is presented. Main data sets utilized for the study were recorded during the REgio KLIma Projekt (REKLIP). Supporting observational data were provided by the German weather service and German geophysical consultant service. Elevation of the study sites ranged from 212 m a.s.l. to 1489 m a.s.l. From May to September, monthly mean albedo was generally low at the study sites, ranging from 19% to 24%. For the other months, monthly mean albedo lie between 22% and 25% at the lowland site but extended between 27% and 71% at the highly elevated mountain site. Following the altitudinal increase in surface albedo, net radiative flux and radiation efficiency declined with elevation at an annual mean of 1.15 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.008/100 m respectively. Absorbed shortwave radiation and effective terrestrial radiation showed mean decline of 1.54 Wm⁻²/100 m and 0.34 Wm⁻²/100 m, respectively, with the mean sky-to-earth radiation deficit amounting to about 52 Wm⁻² for the lowland site and 73 Wm⁻² for the highest elevated site. Some empirical models which express shortwave and longwave radiative fluxes in terms of meteorological variables have been validated for the lowland and mountain sites. Monthly mean daily total estimates of solar radiation obtained from ?ngst?m-Prescott relation were quite consistent with observed values. Parameterisation of downward atmospheric radiation under all sky condition was achieved by extending Brutsaert clear sky atmospheric model. Relationship between outgoing longwave radiation and screen temperature at the study sites was best described by an exponential function unlike the linear relationship proposed by Monteith and Unsworth. Net radiative flux for the lowland and mountain sites has been expressed in terms of absorbed shortwave radiation, cloud amount and screen temperature. Received March 5, 2001 Revised October 29, 2001