德国的气候保护政策及其动因分析

从20世纪90年代初到现在,德国的气候保护政策走过了从"环境政策"到"双赢战略",再到"走向融合"的发展过程,同时取得了良好的执行效果。气候变化影响的应对、确保能源供应安全的需要、保持国家竞争力的要求、环保外交的推动、公众环保意识的支持以及成本收益的综合考量,是德国气候保护政策发展的关键动因。德国的气候保护政策及其动因,对我国气候保护政策的制定以及节能减排目标的实现具有重要的参考价值。     

不同方案下中国CDM的成本－效益分析：基于CGE的实证模拟

对中国CO2减排进行成本-效益的经济影响分析是有意义的。首先,提出国家层次和部门层次CO2减排成本和效益的概念及计算方法;第二,提出4种减排方案（经济-技术进步、能源结构改善、SO2排放控制与碳税）,并就减排成本、效益与减排的总经济影响进行了减排方案与正常排放（BAU）方案的比较,以及减排方案之间的比较;第三,根据上述结果,对中国CDM项目的规划、设置、谈判和实施提出建议。     

基于敏感源分析的动态大气污染排放方案模拟

选取2014年11月6—11日一次典型污染过程,以北京城区为重点关注的目标区域,基于印痕分析技术判别对该区域影响较大的敏感源区,设计重点区域减排试验和敏感源区逐日动态减排试验,利用区域化学传输模式WRF-Chem进行模拟对比。结果显示:上述两种方案对源强较高的减排当地PM_2.5浓度降低均有明显的改善作用,且在传输作用下会辐射影响到下游地区;但仅就目标区域而言,敏感源区减排方案的减排效率要远远高于重点区域减排方案。为了验证基于敏感源分析的动态减排方法的适用性,进一步开展了不同季节以及不同背景浓度的个例模拟。结果表明:基于敏感源区分析结果制定动态逐日减排措施,可降低削减成本、提高减排效率,以达到最具经济环境效益的减排效果。     

2℃温升目标下排放空间及路径的不确定性分析

国际社会已就2℃温升目标达成政治共识。将温升目标向累积排放及各国减排目标转换的过程需要基于一致的科学认知。但由于目前地球系统模式、减排路径及减排方案的研究仍然存在不确定性,缺乏建立政治共识所需的科学基础。通过谈判形成一个自上而下的国际气候制度的决策基础尚不具备。目前最有效和务实的方案仍是各国自下而上加大减排力度,并不断进行评估,促进各国持续加强减排力度,最终公平地承担减排义务。     

中国参与长期（2000-2050年）CO2减排的情景选择

利用国外较为成熟的气候与经济综合评估模型（DICE/RICE）,通过调整CO₂排放控制率,对我国2000-2050年的若干CO₂排放情景进行了设定,在保证大气CO₂总量稳定的前提下开展了若干CO₂减排方案下我国CO₂排放量、经济发展水平和效用水平的影响评估。研究结果表明,若干CO₂减排方案都可以使未来200年的全球平均地表温度增量控制在3.2℃的气候安全阈值范围内,都可以有效地保护全球气候安全。当我国到2050年的CO₂排放量从2000年的253%控制为50%时,国内生产总值(GDP)的下降幅度从0.33%增加到12.22%,相对应的效用值的下降幅度从0.00422增加到0.09946,其下降幅度都随CO₂减排额度的加大而增加。为此,我国将要追加621.96亿～13784.73亿美元的气候投资,占GDP的0.19%～10.5%。因此,从最大程度地减少实施减排所需要的气候投资和对我国经济影响的角度出发,我国应该优先选择到2050年CO₂排放量控制为2000年的253%这个方案。     

发达国家2020年前应对气候变化行动和支持力度盘点

在应对气候变化问题上,发达国家有率先减排和为发展中国家提供气候资金支持的义务。根据《联合国气候变化框架公约》相关成果,发达国家做出了到2020年减排温室气体和每年动员1000亿美元气候资金的承诺,综合相关数据信息盘点了上述承诺的实施进展,结果显示发达国家2020年减排目标力度不足,核算规则不清晰,部分国家缺乏减排进展,气候资金的概念和范围尚有争议,现有气候资金规模与承诺仍有较大差距,《联合国气候变化框架公约》下资金机制作用仍待加强,并且发展中国家需要更大规模的气候资金支持。发达国家2020年承诺兑现不力不利于巩固多边进程各方互信,且有向发展中国家转嫁责任之嫌。为此,建议中国在国际气候谈判进程中,依托谈判联盟,进一步敦促发达国家履行2020年承诺并提高力度。     

CCM3模式中LSM积雪方案的改进研究(Ⅱ):全球模拟试验分析

为了进一步检验新LSM积雪方案的气候模拟性能,经文献[1]单站模拟检验后,在本文中又进一步将其加入CCM3模式中,分别积分近两年。模拟结果表明：原LSM和新LSM积雪方案虽然都能再现全球气候的主要平均特征,但经改进后的新积雪方案对全球积雪气候、降水等要素场及环流等的气候模拟性能比原LSM积雪方案更好些。     

二流—四流球谐函数谱展开累加辐射传输方案在全球气候模式中的应用

本文首先构建了二流—四流球谐函数谱展开累加辐射传输的新方案,然后将其应用于国家气候中心第二代大气环流模式BCC_AGCM2.0.1的新版本中,并与模式中原有的Eddington累加方案进行了比较。由于新方案本质上是单层Eddington近似方案在四流上的推广。因此新方案在计算精度上要优于原方案。通过在全球气候模式中的应用与比较,本文发现新方案对气候模拟会产生比较大的影响。在晴空条件下,新方案计算的在南纬30°到60°区间、北大西洋东北部以及非洲北部的撒哈拉沙漠区域的地表向下年平均短波辐射通量要小于原方案结果,最大差别可以达到3.5 W/m2;同时,新方案计算的在南纬30°到60°区间和北大西洋东北部的大气顶向上年平均短波辐射通量要大于原方案结果,最大差别达到3 W/m2。在有云大气情况下,新方案计算的地表向下年平均短波辐射通量要小于原方案结果,并随着纬度的增加,新旧两种方案的差别逐渐变大,在南北极时达到最大5.5 W/m2;同时,新方案计算的在赤道区域的大气顶的年平均短波向上辐射通量要小于原方案结果,最大差别为2.5 W/m2,而在南北纬30°到60°区间,新方案计算的在大气顶的年平均短波向上辐射通量则要大于原方案结果,最大差别为1.5 W/m2。新方案计算的年平均短波加热率普遍高于原方案结果,特别是在800 hPa到地表之间的低层大气以及50 hPa到100 hPa的高层大气,最大差别可达0.03 K/d。因此,新方案有助于改善全球气候模式中普遍存在的赤道平流层中下层的温度冷偏差现象。     

印度应对气候变化国家方案简析

2008年6月印度政府发布了《气候变化国家行动方案》,阐明了印度应对气候变化的原则立场以及减缓和适应措施。方案中明确指出发展中国家是气候变化的最大受害者,发达国家应该承担温室气体减排的责任和义务;由于近年印度排放不断上升,方案也着重提出了提高能效、大力发展可再生能源等措施。与我国发布的《中国应对气候变化国家方案》进行对比,印度国家行动方案中的一些观点和措施值得我国研究和借鉴,该方案为我国进一步提出应对策略、加强国际合作提供了参考。     

不同辐射传输方案对P-σ RCM9区域气候模式性能的影响

将NCAR CCM3辐射传输方案CRM(Column Radiation Model)引入到P-σRCM9区域气候模式中,并对两组辐射传输方案下P-σRCM9区域气候模式模拟的东亚冬、夏季气候特征差异进行对比分析,发现采用CRM辐射传输方案能够改善P-σRCM9区域气候模式对中国区域冬、夏季地面温度的模拟,且在夏季的改善比冬季更明显,还改善了P-σ RCM9区域气候模式对对流层高层(200～100 hPa)短波辐射加热率和长波辐射加热率的计算,然后改进了模式对200～300 hPa垂直平均经向温度梯度的模拟,进而使得模拟的冬、夏季东亚高空西风急流比采用KQ辐射传输方案的模拟结果更加接近NCEP/NCAR再分析资料.同时还发现,采用CRM辐射传输方案后,P-σRCM9气候模式模拟的中国地区冬、夏季的降水率在强度和分布形势上均比采用KQ辐射传输方案的模拟结果更接近观测,CRM辐射传输方案能够较明显地提高P-σRCM9气候模式对中国地区冬、夏季降水的模拟能力.     

从科学和政策视角看碳预算对全球气候治理的作用

IPCC第五次评估报告进一步阐述和明确了全球平均地表温升与累积CO₂排放之间的近似线性关系。尽管在科学上仍存在一定的不确定性,国际社会对2℃温升目标及所对应的全球累积碳排放空间(即全球碳预算目标)已达成一定的科学认知和政治共识。但如何将碳预算从目标要求转变为各国决策和实际行动,仍是政策制定者们所面临的一个重要问题。在此背景下,提出建立一个有效的碳预算综合管理框架,努力避免人为温室气体排放导致气候系统危害,并利用其科学和政策的双重内涵,来推动谈判进程和加大行动力度,在新型气候治理模式下推动全球减排目标的实现。     

The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy

Strategies to mitigate anthropogenic climate change recognize that carbon sequestration in the terrestrial biosphere can reduce the build-up of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere. However, climate mitigation policies do not generally incorporate the effects of these changes in the land surface on the surface albedo, the fluxes of sensible and latent heat to the atmosphere, and the distribution of energy within the climate system. Changes in these components of the surface energy budget can affect the local, regional, and global climate. Given the goal of mitigating climate change, it is important to consider all of the effects of changes in terrestrial vegetation and to work toward a better understanding of the full climate system. Acknowledging the importance of land surface change as a component of climate change makes it more challenging to create a system of credits and debits wherein emission or sequestration of carbon in the biosphere is equated with emission of carbon from fossil fuels. Recognition of the complexity of human-caused changes in climate does not, however, weaken the importance of actions that would seek to minimize our disturbance of the Earth’s environmental system and that would reduce societal and ecological vulnerability to environmental change and variability.     

Finding a path for REDD+ between ODA and the CDM

Abstract

Strategies to mitigate anthropogenic climate change recognize that carbon sequestration in the terrestrial biosphere can reduce the build-up of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. However, climate mitigation policies do not generally incorporate the effects of these changes in the land surface on the surface albedo, the fluxes of sensible and latent heat to the atmosphere, and the distribution of energy within the climate system. Changes in these components of the surface energy budget can affect the local, regional, and global climate. Given the goal of mitigating climate change, it is important to consider all of the effects of changes in terrestrial vegetation and to work toward a better understanding of the full climate system. Acknowledging the importance of land surface change as a component of climate change makes it more challenging to create a system of credits and debits wherein emission or sequestration of carbon in the biosphere is equated with emission of carbon from fossil fuels. Recognition of the complexity of human-caused changes in climate does not, however, weaken the importance of actions that would seek to minimize our disturbance of the Earth's environmental system and that would reduce societal and ecological vulnerability to environmental change and variability.

© 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.     

《美国清洁能源与安全法案》的影响及意义

美国众议院于2009年6月26日通过了《美国清洁能源与安全法案》。该法案是继2008年Liberman-Wanner法案在参议院被否决后,美国国内最重要的气候法案。法案内容可能对美国参与2012年后气候制度谈判产生深刻影响而备受国际社会关注。对法案中减排目标、资金机制及适应、技术转让等问题进行了概括并简要归纳其特点,就法案可能影响如国际合作、碳市场、碳关税等问题进行了分析,同时,该法案作为从新能源、能效提高出发多目标综合应对气候变化的法案对中国实行低碳发展规划也具有借鉴意义。最后就当前如何认识和对待法案提出了建议。     

COP26: Progress,Challenges, and Outlook

The 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held in Glasgow a year later than scheduled, with expected outcomes achieved under a post-pandemic background. Based on the Issue-Actor-Mechanism Framework, this paper systematically evaluates the outcomes achieved at COP26 and analyzes the tendency of post-COP26 climate negotiations. Overall, with the concerted efforts of all parties, COP26 has achieved a balanced and inclusive package of outcomes and concluded six years of negotiations on the Paris Rulebook. It is fair to say that COP26 is another milestone in climate governance following the implementation of the Paris Agreement. Meanwhile, the Glasgow Climate Pact has cemented the consensus on a global commitment to accelerating climate action over the next decade and reached a breakthrough consensus on reducing coal, controlling methane, and halting deforestation. In the post-COP26 era, we still need to take concrete actions to implement the outcomes of the Paris Agreement and the Glasgow Climate Pact, innovate ways to speed up CO₂ emissions reduction, and continue to strive for breakthroughs in important issues such as finance, technology, adaptation, and collaboration. In addition to avoiding the escalation of international conflicts, we need to collectively and properly handle the relationship between energy security, carbon reduction, and development and facilitate the efforts of countries to achieve their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including climate-related goals. China will continue to maintain the existing multilateral mechanisms and processes for climate governance, unremittingly take concrete actions to address climate change, promote a domestic comprehensive green transition and global cooperation on carbon neutrality, and contribute constructively to global climate governance.     

巴黎气候会议对全球长期目标的新发展

巴黎气候会议（COP21）达成了包括《巴黎协定》在内的重要成果,丰富和深化了应对气候变化的一揽子长期目标。1.5℃温升控制目标意味着全球管控气候风险的政治意愿得到强化,减缓温室气体排放的路径得到初步勾勒。在未来的科学评估和政治谈判中,全球各区域甚至是各个排放大国的排放空间、排放路径和减缓需求将会进一步清晰化和定量化,还会丰富和深化自上而下的国际气候合作规则,结合当前以国家自主决定贡献（INDC）为特征的、主要以自下而上方式推进全球气候治理的新模式,将对发展中国家、尤其是发展中排放大国的排放配额与发展空间产生重要影响,并进一步影响各国制定其国家贡献目标与行动的自主性。     

The REMIND-R model: the role of renewables in the low-carbon transformation—first-best vs. second-best worlds

Can near-term public support of renewable energy technologies contain the increase of mitigation costs due to delays of implementing emission caps at the global level? To answer this question we design a set of first and second best scenarios to analyze the impact of early deployment of renewable energy technologies on welfare and emission timing to achieve atmospheric carbon stabilization by 2100. We use the global multiregional energy?Ceconomy?Cclimate hybrid model REMIND-R as a tool for this analysis. An important design feature of the policy scenarios is the timing of climate policy. Immediate climate policy contains the mitigation costs at less than 1% even if the CO₂ concentration target is 410?ppm by 2100. Delayed climate policy increases the costs significantly because the absence of a strong carbon price signal continues the carbon intensive growth path. The additional costs can be decreased by early technology policies supporting renewable energy technologies because emissions grow less, alternative energy technologies are increased in capacity and their costs are reduced through learning by doing. The effects of early technology policy are different in scenarios with immediate carbon pricing. In the case of delayed climate policy, the emission path can be brought closer to the first-best solution, whereas in the case of immediate climate policy additional technology policy would lead to deviations from the optimal emission path. Hence, technology policy in the delayed climate policy case reduces costs, but in the case of immediate climate policy they increase. However, the near-term emission reductions are smaller in the case of delayed climate policies. At the regional level the effects on mitigation costs are heterogeneously distributed. For the USA and Europe early technology policy has a positive welfare effect for immediate and delayed climate policies. In contrast, India looses in both cases. China loses in the case of immediate climate policy, but profits in the delayed case. Early support of renewable energy technologies devalues the stock of emission allowances, and this effect is considerable for delayed climate policies. In combination with the initial allocation rule of contraction and convergence a relatively well-endowed country like India loses and potential importers like the EU gain from early renewable deployment.     

Analysing the interaction between emission trading and renewable electricity support in TIMES

As the number of instruments applied in the area of energy and climate policy is rising, the issue of policy interaction needs to be explored further. This article analyses the interdependencies between the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) and the German feed-in tariffs (FITs) for renewable electricity in a quantitative manner using a bottom-up energy system model. Flexible modelling approaches are presented for both instruments, with which all impacts on the energy system can be evaluated endogenously. It is shown that national climate policy measures can have an effect on the supranational emissions trading system by increasing emission reduction in the German electricity sector by up to 79 MtCO₂ in 2030. As a result, emission certificate prices decline by between 1.9 €/tCO₂ and 6.1 €/tCO₂ and the burden sharing between participating countries changes, but no additional emission reduction is achieved at the European level. This also implies, however, that the cost efficiency of such a cap-and-trade system is distorted, with additional costs of the FIT system of up to €320 billion compared with lower costs for ETS emission certificates of between €44 billion and €57 billion (cumulated over the period 2013–2020).

Policy relevance

In order to fulfil ambitious emission reduction targets a large variety of climate policy instruments are being implemented in Europe. While some, like the EU ETS, directly address CO₂ emissions, others aim to promote specific low-carbon technologies. The quantitative analysis of the interactions between the EU ETS and the German FIT scheme for renewable sources in electricity generation presented in this article helps to understand the importance of such interaction effects. Even though justifications can be found for the implementation of both types of instrument, the impact of the widespread use of support mechanisms for renewable electricity in Europe needs to be taken into account when fixing the reduction targets for the EU ETS in order to ensure a credible long-term investment signal.     

The radiation budget in a regional climate model

The long- and short-wave components of the radiation budget are among the most important quantities in climate modelling. In this study, we evaluated the radiation budget at the earth??s surface and at the top of atmosphere over Europe as simulated by the regional climate model CLM. This was done by comparisons with radiation budgets as computed by the GEWEX/SRB satellite-based product and as realised in the ECMWF re-analysis ERA40. Our comparisons show that CLM has a tendency to underestimate solar radiation at the surface and the energy loss by thermal emission. We found a clear statistical dependence of radiation budget imprecision on cloud cover and surface albedo uncertainties in the solar spectrum. In contrast to cloud fraction errors, surface temperature errors have a minor impact on radiation budget uncertainties in the long-wave spectrum. We also evaluated the impact of the number of atmospheric layers used in CLM simulations. CLM simulations with 32 layers perform better than do those with 20 layers in terms of the surface radiation budget components but not in terms of the outgoing long-wave radiation and of radiation divergence. Application of the evaluation approach to similar simulations with two additional regional climate models confirmed the results and showed the usefulness of the approach.     

Methane Emission Reduction: An Application of FUND

Methane is, after carbon dioxide, the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas. Governments plan to abate methane emissions. A crude set of estimates of reduction costs is included in FUND, an integratedassessment model of climate change. In a cost-benefit analysis, methane emission reduction is found to be instrumental in controlling the optimal rate of climate change. In a cost-effectiveness analysis, methane emission reduction largely replaces carbon dioxide emission reduction. Methane emission reduction reinforces the case for international cooperation in climate policy, but complicates the efficient allocation of emission reduction efforts. Methane emission reduction at the short run does not help to achieve the ultimate objective of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.