The Suburbanization of Water Scarcity in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region: Sociodemographic and Urban Changes Influencing Domestic Water Consumption

The metropolitan region of Barcelona is facing change in urban development patterns, sociodemographic structures, and domestic water use and management. In recent years, several drought alerts have been enacted and water restrictions applied, uncovering the fragile equilibrium between the demand and the supply of this resource. We find the literature on determinants of domestic water consumption to be strongly biased toward the effects of economic instruments in the suburban Anglo-American world. Therefore, we widen the scope of determinants by including sociodemographic and territorial variables for the mixed urban model of the metropolitan region of Barcelona. Our results show the relevance of residential land uses for water consumption and can be taken as a guide for developing different urban water policies for different urban forms.     

Factors Affecting Domestic Water Consumption on the Spanish Mediterranean Coastline

During the last decades on the Spanish Mediterranean coastline there has been a great development of low-density urban areas, as well as a change in the sociodemographic structures, especially in the municipalities that have developed a residential tourism model. Likewise, urban and tourist development have stressed the balance between the availability of water resources and urban water demands, generating situations of scarcity that might be aggravated by climate change. This study identifies the determinants of water consumption on the Spanish Mediterranean coastline, focusing on the variables related to urban land uses and socioeconomic and sociodemographic variables at the municipal level using an ordinary least square (OLS) and a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The GWR model results substantially improved the results of the OLS model, explaining 88.27 percent of the variance in domestic water consumption and solving the spatial autocorrelation problem of some independent variables. The most influential variables include the percentage of second homes or the percentage of residential properties with swimming pools at the municipal level. These characteristics must be considered to develop demand management policies and an updated hydrological planning to ensure urban supply in a future with less available water resources.     

Residential Tourism,Swimming Pools,and Water Demand in the Western Mediterranean

Many Mediterranean areas have recently witnessed a proliferation of new urban and tourist-related features following low-density residential patterns that contrast with the traditional high-density urban typologies of Mediterranean cities. The aim of this research is to investigate the links between residential tourism and water consumption through swimming pools, which constitute one key element of the new urban landscapes in the coast of Alicante (southeastern Spain). We have digitized pools in nine municipalities of coastal Alicante and calculated the average depth and estimated water losses due to evaporation. Results show that swimming pools are widely available in tourist residential enclaves but that they tend to display different characteristics according to factors such as the history of the urbanization process and relative wealth of the different areas. We have detected a clear contrast between the large individual pools of the richer northern municipalities and the smaller individual pools and community pools in the newly developed but less well-off urban enclaves of the southern coast.     

Green areas and water management in residential developments in the European Western Mediterranean. A case study of Alicante,Spain

The intense urbanization of the Mediterranean coast as a result of the development of residential-tourist activities since the 1960s, especially from the mid-1990s to 2008, has generated new urban environments associated with extensive urban typologies. These include gardens linked to houses with outdoor spaces that are shared between all of the residents of the residential developments. The aim of this study is to determine the main characteristics of these new urban green spaces and their effect on domestic water consumption in Alicante (Spain). To do this, we analysed the characteristics that define these types of gardens (surface area, density, plant species and irrigation system) and determined their water needs using the Water Use Classifications of Landscape Species method. The main conclusions are that the increase in paved areas is one of the strategies to reduce water consumption in spaces where turf grass is the most common plant species. This is due to increased water prices and lack of water resources.     

黄河流域多尺度水系统结构变化特征

大河流域的水系统是支撑社会-生态系统的基础,理解水系统的结构变化是深入揭示区域系统演化的关键。基于自然-社会水系统视角,从黄河全流域和二级水资源分区尺度,利用1998—2018年降水、蒸发、径流、社会经济耗水等水系统变量,通过Mann-Kendall趋势检验和线性回归分析方法,分析了水系统要素的变化趋势及结构演变特征。结果表明：在全流域尺度,降水、蒸发分别以4.25 mm·a^-1、4.09 mm·a^-1的速率上升,但蒸发在空间上的变化更显著;径流量呈现先减少再上升后急剧下降的趋势,且与降水量显著正相关。社会系统耗水量呈现增速减缓的特征,农业灌溉占耗水结构的比例以0.50%的速率逐年下降;城镇公共、居民生活和生态环境耗水比例分别以0.07%、0.29%、0.11%的速率上升。在二级水资源分区尺度,各水系统分异特征明显,兰州至头道拐段及花园口以下区域水系统所支撑社会经济发展的功能已经出现了超载。各水系统要素间具有不同程度的协同演变趋势,在湿润区域,蒸发相较于降水具有明显的滞后现象,但在干旱区域两者变化趋势基本一致。黄河流域水系统要素在时空上均存在明显的异质性,未来人口和经济的进一步发展可能会使区域的水资源压力加剧。     

Latent sprawl,divided Mediterranean landscapes: urban growth,swimming pools,and the socio-spatial structure of Athens,Greece

Although Mediterranean cities have inherent differences on a local scale, together they offer a kaleidoscopic overview of distinctive morphologies and patterns of socio-spatial segregation. In this study, we explore the distribution of residential swimming pools as indicators of the use of land and water at the metropolitan scale, in relation to recent changes in the socio-spatial structure of a large Mediterranean city (Athens, Greece). Our results indicate a polarized spatial distribution of swimming pools, still considered a luxury affordable only for a minor segment of the Greek population. The analysis highlights the spatial linkages between concentration of residential pools, class segregation and low-density settlements, indicating that the socio-spatial structure of Athens remains characterized by persistent disparities between rich and poor neighborhoods. Comparison with another Mediterranean city (Barcelona) demonstrates the peculiarity of Athens’ recent development as reflected in the fragmented and polarized urban structure. The study provides an alternative reading of recent Mediterranean urban growth by considering pools as a “landmark” for urban sprawl, producing contested landscapes of localized social segregation.     

Urban–agricultural water appropriation: the Hyderabad, India case

With the urbanisation drive comes steady growth in urban water demand. Although in the past this new demand could often be met by tapping unclaimed water sources, this option is increasingly untenable in many regions where little if any unclaimed water remains. The result is that urban water capture, and the appropriation of associated physical and institutional infrastructure, now often implies conflict with other existing uses and users. While the urbanisation process has been studied in great depth, the processes and, critically, impacts of urban water capture and appropriation are not well researched or understood. This paper undertakes a critical examination of the specific case of Hyderabad, one of India's fastest growing cities, to shed light more generally on the process of water capture by cities and the resultant impacts on pre-existing claims, particularly agriculture. It does this by examining the history and institutional response to Hyderabad's urban–rural water contest; how the results of that contest are reflected in surface and groundwater hydrology; and the eventual impacts on agriculture. The findings show that the magnitude, and sometimes even direction, of impact from urban water transfer vary in space and time and depend on location-specific rainfall patterns, the nature of existing water infrastructure and institutions, and farmers' adaptive capacities and options, notably recourse to groundwater. Broader consideration of the specific findings provides insights into policy mechanisms to reduce the possible negative impacts from the global, and seemingly inexorable, flow of water to the world's growing cities.     

基于水供给服务空间流动模型的渭河流域水资源安全格局

基于VIC模型量化了渭河流域水资源供需平衡关系;构建了水供给服务流动模型,模拟了渭河流域2005年、2010年和2015年的水资源安全格局,利用地理探测器探寻了区域水资源安全的主要驱动力。结果表明：① 流域内水资源供需矛盾突出,平均每年有10.89 %的地区经上游水资源补给后达到用水安全,补给不充分和未受补给的区域增加,不利于流域可持续发展。② 2005年水资源安全指数（WSI）最高,2010年最低。区域WSI的变化是自然要素和人文要素综合作用的结果,其主导因素为农业耗水量和人口。③ 农业耗水和生活耗水对区域水安全的解释力最强,通过研究发现渭南市农业用水效率过低,西安咸阳市人均生活用水过高。应倡导节水型农业、控制城市用水定额、调整水费、增强居民节水意识以提高流域水资源安全。     

基于投入产出表的中国水资源消耗结构路径分析

为了解各部门在生产链中水资源的具体消耗路径和在消耗路径中所发挥的作用以及维持生产链中水资源消耗的关键部门,论文基于2017年投入产出表和相关气象数据,在农业用水中加入绿水资源消耗量,利用投入产出模型和结构路径分析(structural path analysis, SPA)法分析中国42个部门水资源消耗的总量和结构,以及水资源在生产链中消耗的具体路径。结果表明：① 城镇居民消费和进口的水足迹最高,其次为农村居民消费,大多数水足迹较高的部门,都是以居民消费为主,进口水资源弥补了国内部分生产用水的消耗,但水资源短缺的形势仍然严峻;② 生产链前5个层级的水足迹消耗占比为95%左右,其中部门内部消耗占比最大,水足迹随层级数的增加而下降,水资源反馈循环程度较弱;③ 从部门生产链看,部门内部的水足迹占比最大,部门流入和流出水足迹差值较大,部门之间普遍存在单向依赖特征,关联网络不够稳定;④ 从最终消费角度看,农业部门内部水足迹占比最大,是生产链中重要的衔接结点,多样化的消费需求增加上游部门的水资源压力。研究为调整节水政策和提升水资源配置与管理能力提供了一定的理论基础。     

中小城市家庭生活用能碳排放空间分异——以开封市为例

利用2015年开封市居民家庭生活用能的大样本问卷调查数据,采用探索性空间数据分析（ESDA）和标准差椭圆（SDE）方法,探索城市居住区家庭生活用能碳排放空间分布特征。结果表明：① 家庭生活用能碳排放存在以热点区为主的空间正相关特性,碳排放高值集聚发生在城市新建开发区和建成区向外扩张较快区域,以2000年以后新建高档商品房小区和机关事业单位家属院为主,低值集聚区则发生在建成时间长、后续开发力度小的区域,以老商品房小区和胡同社区为主;② 开封市家庭电力消耗碳排放占生活用能总碳排放的67%,但人均生活用能碳排放空间格局由供暖碳排放决定,且人均供暖碳排放空间格局又由集中供暖碳排放空间格局决定,故降低集中供暖能耗、缩小居民供暖用能差异成为居民生活用能碳减排工作的重中之重;③ 家庭经济状况、集中供暖设施分布和城市发展的空间格局是家庭生活用能碳排放空间依赖性和空间异质性形成的主要驱动因素。     

Linked and Independent African American Migration from Los Angeles

Empirical evidence of environmental performance of urban areas designed according to the principles of sustainable urbanism is limited. Using the case study of Civano, a planned development that was designed and marketed as a sustainable community in Tucson, Arizona, we quantify fine-scale differences in urban form and delivery of ecosystem services. We found that the urban design of the first phase of development translated to the lowest surface temperatures and highest albedo and vegetative density. The first and second phases of the development greatly reduced potable water consumption through the addition of nonpotable resources; however, the second phase had higher temperatures and less dense vegetation than even the conventional development. Our results show modest improvements in environmental performance through sustainable urbanism and suggest further refinement in fine-scale spatial analysis of the role of urban design in the provisioning of services.     

扬州市住宅价格空间分异的影响因素与驱动机制

构建包含20个评价因子、4 个影响因素和4 个预期修正因素在内的城市住宅价格空间分异影响因素评价体系,基于评价因子和预期修正,分别得出单户住宅档次与水平、小区建设档次与水平、区位与生活便利性、周边景观与环境等4 个影响因素强度的得分,并分析其空间分异格局。以2012 年扬州市1305 个小区的平均住宅单价为因变量,4 个基本影响因素得分为自变量,进行回归分析,探索所有住宅及各子市场价格分异的主要因素,并分析其驱动机制。结果表明：① 4 个影响因素强度格局明显不同,住宅自身因素的格局呈现中心低外围高的圈层式分异,而外部作用因素强度呈现中心高外围低、西高东低的扇型与圈层相结合式空间分异格局;② 扬州市总体住宅价格空间分异的核心影响因素是小区建设档次与水平,不同类型住宅子市场的价格影响因素各不相同;③ 扬州市住宅价格空间分异的主要驱动力是特定住宅类型与档次建设的区位指向、特定收入阶层的空间集聚、公共物品投资的空间差异、城市居住用地扩展与城市更新的区位指向。     

哈萨克斯坦水环境与水资源现状及问题分析

水是最重要的自然资源之一,水资源的可利用量取决于自然条件和人为因素两个方面。亚洲中部干旱区水资源有限,近年来河湖萎缩、生态环境系统退化,已成为区域社会经济持续发展的瓶颈。以丝绸之路经济带沿线国家之一哈萨克斯坦内按照水资源需求程度划分的八大流域作为研究区,在进行各个流域水质及水资源现状特征分析的基础上,通过径流占比、人为影响程度以及水资源需求程度等3项指标分别对八大流域水资源进行综合评估,并采用可变模糊优选模型评价哈萨克斯坦境内不同流域人类活动对水资源的影响程度,对八大流域进行轻微、中等和显著等3个影响程度的等级划分。结果表明：人类活动对锡尔河-咸海及伊希姆河流域水资源以及水环境的影响程度处于显著水平,而且前者流域水质污染问题较为严重;乌拉尔河-里海流域的地表径流占比最高,但该区域因大量油气资源开发对水资源需求量非常高,处于危险等级。巴尔喀什湖-阿拉湖流域的用水需求处于临界程度,属于第三类（处于危重程度）。额尔齐斯河流域水储量最为丰富,但流域中游哈萨克斯坦境内矿产开发引起的水质污染严重。另外,近几十年来哈萨克斯坦地表径流变化分析表明,1965年以来年总径流量减少39.4 km³,其中跨境径流量减少23 km³,境内径流减少16.5 km³。近年虽然灌溉面积和工业活动减少,年均耗水量也有所减少,但是人口增长导致公共服务和生活等方面耗水量增加2.58 km³,区域水资源供需矛盾日益凸显。因此,需要综合考虑各国利益和整个区域社会经济与生态环境的和谐可持续发展,共同商定水资源开发利用及保护的措施。     

绿洲城市综合规模与水资源相互作用关系研究——以乌鲁木齐为例

选取我国最大绿洲城市乌鲁木齐为研究对象,基于乌鲁木齐城市经济数据和水资源数据,运用灰色关联法和SPSS软件,定量研究绿洲城市综合规模与城市用水相互作用关系。结果发现:①绿洲城市综合规模发展有利于城市用水减量化\.1995—2007年,乌鲁木齐城市综合规模与城市用水存在着较为复杂的二次曲线关系,绿洲城市综合规模在理论上存在阈值380(万人·亿元·km2),超过阈值,城市用水量减少;1995—2003年和2003—2007年,乌鲁木齐城市用水随城市综合规模发展存在着周期为3 a和1 a的波动性\.②水资源对城市综合规模发展具有较强的限制作用,表现在城市人均用水量减少。1995—2007年,乌鲁木齐综合规模发展均是在中度与严重缺水状态下发展。当城市综合规模小于中等缺水与严重缺水状态理论规模时,水资源是城市发展的促进要素,当城市综合规模超过理论规模阈值时,水资源是城市发展的障碍要素\.③乌鲁木齐城市用水结构不利于城市综合规模发展,城市综合规模与农业用水、工业用水和生活用水灰色关联度为0.784、0.781、0.622,农业用水过高、耗水量过大,工业耗水部门较多,加剧了城市水资源的短缺,阻碍了城市综合规模发展。最后提出了适度提高城市综合规模、提高水资源利用效率、调整产业结构和污水处理与利用等途径促进城市综合规模发展与水资源协调发展。     

城市商业型健身休闲场所空间格局及影响机理——以上海市为例

基于百度POI和美团网评分数据,分析上海市商业型健身休闲场所空间格局及影响机理。结果显示：① 上海市商业型健身休闲场所整体呈现核心?边缘格局,黄浦区、静安区、徐汇区、长宁区、普陀区和虹口区的交界处形成了核心集聚分布区。② 上海市商业型健身休闲场所分布与高人口密度区、高房价地区、交通网络发达区、住宅小区、写字楼和购物中心等空间分布保持较高的契合度。③ 人口密度、地铁距离、小区距离、写字楼距离、连锁情况和房价水平等6个变量是影响空间格局的关键因素,人口密度影响最大,房价水平和写字楼距离其次,地铁距离、小区距离和连锁情况最小,房价水平为负向影响,其余为正向影响。分析影响机理,以期满足人们日益增长的健身休闲需求,优化城市商业空间,提升城市生活品质,助力实现“健康中国”国家战略目标。     

新疆1999-2009年水足迹计算与分析

利用统计资料,结合水足迹模型和区域水足迹评价方法,对新疆1999-2009年的水足迹及相关指标进行了计算和分析。研究表明：（1）新疆1999-2004年总水足迹呈上升趋势,2004- 2009年略有下降趋势。水资源集约利用度呈增长趋势,说明新疆水资源利用效率有所提高;（2）新疆居民对粮食、肉类等虚拟水含量较大的农产品需求较大,适当减少虚拟水含量较高的产品消费,提倡虚拟水含量较低的产品消费,可减少虚拟水量的消耗;（3）新疆在虚拟水贸易中是水资源输出地,且输出量在不断增大,给新疆本地的水资源利用带来巨大的压力;（4）新疆水资源压力逐年增加,解决水资源短缺问题不能局限于本地实体水资源的高效利用,还可通过虚拟水贸易从水源丰富地区购买高耗水的本地发展所需的相关消费品,实现水资源总体可持续利用。改变消费模式,调整虚拟水战略结构成为缓解新疆水资源短缺的一种可能途径,由于数据限制,水足迹研究有待进一步细化,但是一种可用于探讨干旱区水资源可持续利用的方法。     

西北干旱区新疆水资源足迹及利用效率动态评估

 水资源足迹是如实反映人类对水资源消费利用的新概念,能深刻揭示社会经济系统对水资源的消费,为干旱缺水地区水资源科学管理提供了一个新视角。以地处西北干旱区的新疆为例,运用水资源足迹概念对1990—2005年新疆水资源足迹进行综合评价,然后采用动态计量的分析方法对水资源利用效率与水资源足迹、城乡消费结构之间的长期关系进行了分析。结果表明:新疆全社会水资源足迹总量从1990年的115.55亿m3增加到2005年的159.57亿m3,增幅38.1%,总体上呈现上升趋势。水足迹强度由1990年的0.42 m3\5元-1下降到2005年的0.06 m3\5元-1,降幅85.5%,说明水资源利用效率有了明显提高。城乡居民的消费水平、消费数量和消费结构发生了较大的变化。水资源利用效率不高与水资源足迹、城乡消费结构之间呈现一种长期稳定的趋势,需要及时采取应对策略与措施加以调控。     

城市热岛效应对天津市居住建筑供暖和制冷负荷的影响

城市热岛效应已对建筑能源需求产生了重要影响,评估城市热岛效应影响下建筑的真实能耗需求及城乡差异对既有建筑的节能调控和未来建筑的方案设计都具有重要意义。论文以天津自动气象站2009—2017年逐时观测数据为基础,应用卫星遥感选站方法,选取天津市区周围4个有代表性的乡村参考气象站,对典型居住建筑全年逐时负荷进行了动态模拟,定量评估了城市热岛强度对不同时间尺度(年、日和小时)建筑负荷的影响。结果表明：① 随着城市热岛强度(I_UHI)的增强,城市居住建筑供暖负荷减少、制冷负荷增加,且年平均供暖负荷的减小幅度大于年平均制冷负荷的增加幅度。I_UHI每上升1 ℃,城市年平均供暖负荷较乡村减少4.01 kWh/m²、年平均制冷负荷增加1.05 kWh/m²。② 冬季供暖期和夏季制冷期逐日负荷变化表现为：供暖期的高负荷时段主要集中在12月下旬至翌年1月下旬、制冷期为7月下旬至8月上旬,高负荷时段城市日平均供暖和制冷负荷分别较乡村约减少10%、增加6%。③ 日内供暖负荷和制冷负荷小时变化均表现为夜间强于白天。在供暖期和制冷期,北京时间18:00至次日07:00时段无论在城市或是乡村都是高负荷时段;11:00至15:00时段在供暖期是低负荷时段,而在制冷期是高负荷时段,这可能与气温和供暖制冷需求有关。研究表明,应充分考虑小时、日尺度热岛强度对用能的影响,提高供暖和空调运行调控的精细化水平,以期达到降低供暖和制冷能耗的目的。     

Economic Efficiency of Residential Water Conservation Programs in a Pennsylvania Public Water Utility

This study examines the economic efficiency of implementing a residential water conservation program in a small Pennsylvania public water utility. Local demographic data and results from similar programs elsewhere were used to estimate potential water conservation for three programs: rebates for low-flow toilets, rebates for high-efficiency washing machines, and in-home water audits. Future water supply and wastewater treatment demand were estimated. The net present value of constructing, operating, and maintaining new capacity infrastructure (water supply, water storage tanks, and wastewater treatment plant capacity), as well as the costs of the conservation programs, was calculated for a range of scenarios that included future demand growth, construction costs, interest rates, and levels of participation in the conservation programs. Results indicate that investing in residential water conservation would be cost-effective for a small number of scenarios that generally combine higher growth rates, higher interest rates, higher construction costs, and relatively modest public participation in conservation. The results are affected by the timing of necessary supply-side investments relative to the most significant water conservation gains, the relatively inexpensive local water supply costs, and the relatively high local wastewater treatment costs. Water conservation might be cost-effective for a wider range of conditions in communities facing scarce and expensive water supply options.     

Hydrological Studies and Water Resource Concerns in Southeast Asia

Water supply shortage has become a pressing issue in Southeast Asia in recent years. While on the one hand water demand is escalating with rapid economic development, urbanisation and related population concentrations, on the other, surface water supply sources are increasingly being threatened by the resultant land use changes. Therefore, any understanding of the region's water supply concerns necessarily takes into account the hydrological processes and changes consequent to human interference of the natural environment. Changes to the environment that curtail the quantity of water supply and affect its quality will in turn have implications for water resource issues in megacities and other urban areas. Equally critical to the supply of water are water resource and management issues, in particular, the adequate provision of safe water for human consumption, regarded as not only meeting a basic need but also a human right. This paper provides an overview of hydrological processes and water resource concerns and suggests the scope for further investigation, particularly by geographers.