RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY AND NEIGHBORHOOD CHANGE: SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR RACIAL RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION

This paper examines changes in the incidence of low-income employment within and across different tiers of the United States urban hierarchy between 1950 and 1990 using data from Public Use Microdata Samples. Theoretical guidance comes from past studies on the relationship between urban hierarchy and income inequality and more recent conceptualizations of global cities. An established urban typology is used to identify the “positions” of 105 metropolitan labor markets that can be tracked over the past four decades. Results show that local rates of low-income employment have varied systematically throughout the urban hierarchy during the post-war era and that rates consistently have remained the lowest within higher order cities and the highest within peripheral manufacturing centers. These findings are repeated among distinct race and gender groups and indicate that the urban hierarchy continues to play a significant role in shaping the size of the local low-income workforce.     

Concentration or Dispersion? Location Choice of Commercial Developers in the Portland Metropolitan Area, 2000–2007

This study develops nested logit models to explore the location choice of commercial developers in the Portland metropolitan area, a region that is widely known for its progressive urban growth management. The purposes are to study the dynamics of urban spatial structure from the supply side of the real estate market and to test the capacity of regional governments to manage urban growth by influencing the location choices of developers. The model results indicate that commercial development in the Portland region showed a clear trend of decentralization from its central city. Decentralized commercial developments were not generally dispersed in suburban areas either. Instead, commercial developers tended to locate them in locations within or in close proximity to employment subcenters. Among many control variables tested in the models, availability of vacant land zoned for commercial and industrial purposes proved to be the most important predictor for new commercial development.     

京津冀都市圈汽车产业空间布局演化研究

产业的集聚与扩散所形成的产业结构变迁,带动城市空间发生重构。随着产业不断发展成熟,生产片段化的趋势日益显著,对地区产业链的研究有助于寻求区域空间结构优化的途径。本文基于企业层面的数据,刻画京津冀都市圈汽车制造业企业的空间分布格局,考察汽车企业在都市圈范围内集聚与扩散特点,探讨汽车产业链不同环节的地域特征差异,并分析影响微观企业空间布局的驱动力量。研究结果表明,1996年京津冀都市圈汽车产业集聚程度较低,2001年出现少数集聚中心主导的向心集聚,2010年核心城市与多个新兴集聚点共存;北京的城市功能拓展区和城市发展新区（朝阳、通州、大兴等）、天津市环城4 区（西青、东丽等）以及河北的沧州、廊坊是汽车零部件和配件企业的主要集聚区,而汽车修理企业则倾向于在北京的城市功能拓展区（丰台、朝阳）、天津市内六区和滨海新区以及河北的唐山和石家庄布局。基于条件logit模型的定量研究,验证了市场条件、集聚经济和政策引导等因素是影响京津冀都市圈汽车企业布局的主要因素。     

The typology of the American metropolis: monocentricity,polycentricity, or generalized dispersion?

Although the spatial structure of employment in large US metropolitan regions is a well-researched topic, few studies focus on medium-sized and small US metropolitan regions. Consequently, there is no overall typology relating small-to-medium urban form to employment distribution. We address this gap by investigating the spatial structure of employment in 356 metropolitan regions. We conceptualize six typologies based on three categories that have overlapping properties: “monocentricity,” “polycentricity,” and “generalized dispersion.” The study has three main findings. First, the three types of urban form that we identify as “hybrid” outnumber the three “pure” types by almost four to one. Second, job dispersion is a dominant characteristic in almost 70% of all metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) (including the hybrid types), and polycentricity (56.7% of MSAs) is somewhat more common than monocentricity. Third, there is a strong relationship between population size and density. The population of medium-sized metropolitan areas is generally more dispersed than that of small and large metropolitan areas. Polycentricy emerges mostly in large metropolitan regions, while monocentrity is found in both small and large metropolitan regions.     

京津冀都市圈汽车产业空间布局演化研究简

产业的集聚与扩散所形成的产业结构变迁,带动城市空间发生重构。随着产业不断发展成熟,生产片段化的趋势日益显著,对地区产业链的研究有助于寻求区域空间结构优化的途径。本文基于企业层面的数据,刻画京津冀都市圈汽车制造业企业的空间分布格局,考察汽车企业在都市圈范围内集聚与扩散特点,探讨汽车产业链不同环节的地域特征差异,并分析影响微观企业空间布局的驱动力量。研究结果表明,1996年京津冀都市圈汽车产业集聚程度较低,2001年出现少数集聚中心主导的向心集聚,2010年核心城市与多个新兴集聚点共存;北京的城市功能拓展区和城市发展新区（朝阳、通州、大兴等）、天津市环城4 区（西青、东丽等）以及河北的沧州、廊坊是汽车零部件和配件企业的主要集聚区,而汽车修理企业则倾向于在北京的城市功能拓展区（丰台、朝阳）、天津市内六区和滨海新区以及河北的唐山和石家庄布局。基于条件logit模型的定量研究,验证了市场条件、集聚经济和政策引导等因素是影响京津冀都市圈汽车企业布局的主要因素。     

北京市制造业空间格局演化及影响因子分析

制造业的空间扩散是推动城市空间结构呈现多极化、多中心地域系统的主要驱动力, 对制造业区位变迁及影响因素的研究是认识城市空间重构机制的微观基础。本研究基于北京市1996、2001、2010 年制造业企业数据, 以邮政编码区为空间单元, 刻画了北京市制造业空间集聚格局及演化特征。采用计量模型, 检验了导致北京制造业空间重构的主要区位因子, 对比了这些影响因子作用强度随时间的变化以及在制造业行业间的差异。结果表明, 北京市的制造业在中心城区的集聚度明显减弱, 呈显著的郊区化集聚;主要集聚区位于距市中心半径为15~35 km的空间范围内, 总体空间格局呈现出大都市区尺度上的扩散以及产业园区尺度的再集聚特征。计量模型计算结果显示, 区位通达度、集聚经济、科技园区规划与政策引导是北京制造业总体空间格局演化的主要驱动因素, 但不同区位因子的作用强度存在行业间差异。本研究揭示了北京市的制造业空间重组机制是政府规划引导下的市场经济作用机制。认识到城市经济活动空间重组中市场与政府的交互作用机理, 有助于决策者对转型期大都市区制造业空间集聚和扩散格局进行更加有效地引导, 以优化大都市区的空间结构与功能体系。     

The spatial structure of employment in the metropolitan region of Tokyo: A scale-view

Despite Tokyo’s size and position in the global urban system, studies of its employment distribution have been few. This research identified the locations and ranks of the employment centers in the entire metropolitan region and analyzed the characteristics of the economic sectors in those centers by using fine scale economic census data. Minimum sizes for a center were explored at a range from as small as 250 by 250 m to 3,000 by 3,000 m, and the Local Indicators of Spatial Association technique was utilized for detecting centers in different ranks. The results showed that, from a regional view, Tokyo has a typical monocentric or concentric spatial structure. However, from a fine scale view, the distribution was revealed to be expanding along the railroads to the suburbs, and both the main central business district and the suburbs are polycentric. Through this research, the authors argue that rather than using thresholds of total employment and minimum densities as seen in the previous studies, centers can be effectively detected by comparing with the surrounding areas at different scales. This “scale-view” approach of center identification may provide a new perspective to other metropolitan regions of the world as well.     

沈阳市部门企业地理集聚与城市结构

基于产业空间聚集分布情况探寻城市结构特征,是当前大都市区实证研究中的聚焦点所在,但由于方法论的限制而无法真正揭示产业地理集聚之间的内在关联性。基于已有研究基础,试图通过完善潜力模型、设置距离参数、结合主成分分析法实现对产业地理集聚测度方法论的完善与发展,并选取极具代表性大都市区核心城市——沈阳市为样本单元,以2008年的经济普查部门企业数据开展实证检验。结果表明：沈阳市部门企业之间除了交通运输、仓储和邮政中心产业属于地方化经济外,其余的均为企业关联;水利、环境和公共设施管理业产业依附于制造业呈临街抑或隔街集聚,而与公共管理和组织产业之间同街道集聚;支配主角之间,存在中心CBD主宰制造业的布局,而制造业又在很大程度上影响着交通运输、仓储和邮政中心的布局;企业地理集聚形成的城市结构依然是一个明显的“单中心圈层”结构,没有表现出“去中心化”抑或多极化或分散化演变趋势。研究成果与现实情况基本吻合,侧面说明该模式对揭示城市产业地理集聚模式以及由此形成的城市结构特征具有一定的解释力。     

中国汽车制造业集聚与企业区位选择

本文利用2001-2009 年《中国工业企业数据库》中汽车制造业企业有关数据,对近10 年来中国汽车制造业的空间布局进行描述,利用地理集中度指数和EG指数对产业集聚水平进行测算和分析后,发现中国汽车制造业的空间集聚水平呈现不断下降的趋势,零部件及配件制造业的集聚水平对汽车制造业具有决定性和先导性影响。针对零部件及配件制造业的特点,构建了基于地级以上城市为空间单元的新建企业区位选择模型,进行估计后发现：① 中国不存在类似欧美日等国家整车和零部件企业邻近的空间集中集聚现象;② 零部件制造业的劳动密集型特点显著,不利于产业生产率和专业化水平提高;③ 在不考虑集聚经济的条件下,市场规模和地方保护对新建企业的区位选择影响非常显著。在这些原因的共同作用下,使得中国汽车制造业的专业化水平和空间集聚程度越来越低。     

NEGOTIATING DUALISMS: WOMEN, LOCALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN OAXACA CITY, MEXICO

This paper examines the validity of the public/private and reproductive/productive dichotomies commonly adopted in the analysis of gender and employment. It considers three aspects of the dualisms: spatial division, activity patterns and the construction of identities. The discussion is based on fieldwork undertaken in three districts of Oaxaca City, Mexico, between 1992 and 1995. While recognising the usefulness of spatial dualisms within Mexican cities, the paper seeks to identify the ways in which class and location within the urban space affect the construction of the boundary between “public” and “private”, women's “employment” experiences, and women's identities.     

Location patterns of urban industry in Shanghai and implications for sustainability

China’s economy has undergone rapid transition and industrial restructuring. The term “urban industry” describes a particular type of industry within Chinese cities experiencing restructuring. Given the high percentage of industrial firms that have either closed or relocated from city centres to the urban fringe and beyond, emergent global cities such as Shanghai, are implementing strategies for local economic and urban development, which involve urban industrial upgrading numerous firms in the city centre and urban fringe. This study aims to analyze the location patterns of seven urban industrial sectors within the Shanghai urban region using 2008 micro-geography data. To avoid Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) issue, four distance-based measures including nearest neighbourhood analysis, Kernel density estimation, K-function and co-location quotient have been extensively applied to analyze and compare the concentration and co-location between the seven sectors. The results reveal disparate patterns varying with distance and interesting co-location as well. The results are as follows: the city centre and the urban fringe have the highest intensity of urban industrial firms, but the zones with 20–30 km from the city centre is a watershed for most categories; the degree of concentration varies with distance, weaker at shorter distance, increasing up to the maximum distance of 30 km and then decreasing until 50 km; for all urban industries, there are three types of patterns, mixture of clustered, random and dispersed distribution at a varied range of distances. Consequently, this paper argues that the location pattern of urban industry reflects the stage-specific industrial restructuring and spatial transformation, conditioned by sustainability objectives.     

新创企业的时空分异与区位选择——基于中国汽车制造业的实证研究

新创企业区位选择不仅是企业重要的决策活动,也深刻影响中国制造业地理空间格局演变。在全球化、市场化、分权化背景下,基于“中国工业企业数据库（1998—2012）”和“中国城市统计年鉴（1999—2013）”中新创企业及城市属性数据,采用随机效应面板Tobit模型分析中国汽车制造业新创企业的时空分异与区位选择。研究发现：① 1998—2012年,中国汽车新创企业活跃地区由东部沿海地区向中西部地区转移,尤其是2010—2012年,新创企业呈现向中西部大规模扩散趋势,西部成渝地区逐渐成为新热点区域。② 从新创企业区位选择时空综合机制来看,全球化影响不显著,而市场化和分权化均存在显著影响,其中劳动力、集聚经济、市场潜力与区位商等因素能促使新创企业成立,而国有企业占比则会阻碍新创企业成立。③ 在时间特征差异上,全球化表现不显著,分权化则始终保持对新创企业的显著影响。市场化的劳动力因素影响作用变化说明新创企业区位选择正逐渐从关注劳动力成本转向于关注劳动力质量,而集聚经济和市场潜力在多样化和城市化经济的冲击下作用减弱。④ 在空间特征差异上,全球化的出口因素在东部地区影响显著,但在中西部地区表现不明显,市场化中劳动力因素和市场潜力在东部地区影响不显著,而在中西部地区劳动力因素则显著为正,除此之外,外商直接投资、集聚经济、区位商和国有企业占比对不同区域新创企业区位选择影响大体相同。在经济高质量发展情景下,揭示新创企业时空分异及区位选择机制,强调“区位机会窗口”对某些地区实现企业区位空间调整及其把握企业与政府关系的重要性,不仅能丰富演化经济地理学视角下的企业区位选择的研究,还能更好地理解中国典型区域正在发生的经济转型和空间重构。     

北京典型行业微区位选址比较研究——以北京企业管理服务业和汽车制造业为例

以微观企业数据为基础,采用核密度空间平滑和条件逻辑选择模型等方法,重点关注企业在城市内部微观尺度下的区位选择,并对北京典型现代服务业和制造业区位选择的差异进行对比分析。结果表明：① 北京中小型制造企业倾向于在集聚区分布,符合马歇尔式产业集群的特征,而服务业则是大型企业更倾向于集中布局;② 尽管微观尺度下多样化和上下游产业链对现代服务业和制造业依然有重要影响,但是与宏观尺度下不同的是对于现代服务业来说过度多样化并不利于其发展,对于制造业来说区域专业化劳动力规模而非专业化程度更为重要;③ 政府对地铁等公共设施布局选址将对现代服务业的微观区位产生重要影响。     

城市内部研发密集型制造业的空间分布与区位选择模式——以北京、上海为例

基于微观企业数据对北京和上海研发密集型制造业空间分布的特征和影响因素进行分析,进而揭示其区位选择模式差异。研究发现,北京企业集中分布特征明显,热点区主要位于核心城区及近郊的少数地区,并形成以中关村-上地为中心的集聚格局;上海企业表现为集中与扩散并存,热点区在郊环线以里区域零散布局,并形成以漕河泾和张江为双核的联动共生集聚格局;北京和上海企业均存在开发区和交通指向性以及路径依赖,与此同时,上海企业还具有学研机构和老工业区指向性以及郊区化现象,北京企业则出现逆郊区化。研发密集型制造业在北京和上海分别形成以开发区为空间载体的“紧凑型-中心性”模式和以开发区、学研机构和老工业区为多元空间载体的“离散型-郊区化”模式。不同行业企业基本符合总体特征,但又呈现一定的特殊性。     

Industrial Land Development and Manufacturing Deconcentration in Greater Jakarta

Abstract

Industrial land development has become a key feature of urbanization in Greater Jakarta, one of the largest metropolitan areas in Southeast Asia. Following Suharto's market-oriented policy measures in the late 1980s, private developers have dominated the land development projects in Greater Jakarta. The article investigates the extent to which these private industrial centers have effectively reduced the domination of Jakarta in shaping the entire metropolitan structure. The analysis indicates that major suburban industrial centers have captured most of the manufacturing employment that has dispersed from Jakarta. The industrial centers have now increasingly specialized and diversified. It is likely that a polycentric metropolitan structure will emerge in the future.     

RECONSTRUCTED PRODUCTION LANDSCAPES IN THE POSTMODERN CITY: APPLIED DESIGN AND CREATIVE SERVICES IN THE METROPOLITAN CORE

Applied design and creative services are central to the formation of metropolitan landscapes and urban culture (both in historical and contemporary contexts), as well as to the production of the full range of industrial and consumer goods. More specifically, applied design firms are essential to the development of advanced industrial systems, and facilitate the operation of flexible production regimes by (1) enabling production differentiation in segmented markets, (2) improving productivity, (3) promoting production synergies, (4) enhancing short-run customized production, and (5) contributing to the condensing of longer-run style cycles. A case study of design and creative services firms in Vancouver discloses that such firms exhibit important commonalities with other producer services industries (e.g., intermediate market orientation, clustering propensity, divisions of labor). At the same time, firms engaged in the production of design may be differentiated from “mainstream” business or corporate service firms in terms of (1) location and milieu, with a clear affinity for the CBD fringe and inner city, rather than the CBD proper; (2) function, with an emphasis on creativity as both raison d'etre and operating characteristic; and (3) services-goods interface (design services are not “arms length” from goods production, like most business services, but are directly concerned with the style, configuration, and identity of end products). Finally, the clustering of design and creative service firms exemplifies the “internal specialization of the production spaces of the large metropolis” (Scott, 1988), although empirical evidence from the Vancouver case asserts the significance of sociocultural, as well as economic, features of agglomeration. [Key words: design, production, inner city, clustering, agglomeration.]     

Spatial and Sectoral Patterns of Firm Entry in China

This article provides new empirical evidence on the patterns of firm entry across sectors and space. Based on Pavitt’s four manufacturing industry categories—supplier-dominated, scale-intensive, specialized suppliers, and knowledge-based—we use China’s firm-level database, covering all manufacturing firms with sales above 5 million RMB from 1998 to 2008, to investigate the relation between spatial patterns of new entry firms and industrial structure change and firm heterogeneity. Based on our analysis, there are three key findings. First, industrial structure change plays an important role in influencing the sectoral pattern of new firm entry. Second, the transformation from a supplier-dominated industry to a scale-intensive industry from 1998 to 2008 in China has largely influenced spatial patterns of new entry firms (mainly spatial agglomeration and entry similarity between regions). Third, the heterogeneity of firms (mainly firm ownership, firm size, and technological relatedness) affected the location choice of new entry firms. Based on our findings, we conclude that the importance of industrial structure change and the heterogeneity of firms in revealing the spatial pattern of new entry firms should receive more attention. Key Words: China, firm entry, firm heterogeneity, industrial structure change, sectoral and spatial pattern.     

The validity of the monocentric city model in a polycentric age: US metropolitan areas in 1990, 2000 and 2010

In this article, we use local indicators of spatial association (LISA) and other spatial analysis techniques to analyze the distribution of centers with high employment density within metropolitan areas. We examine the 359 metropolitan areas across the United States at three points in time (1990, 2000, and 2010) to provide a spatio-temporal panoramic of urban spatial structure. Our analysis highlights three key findings. (1) The monocentric structure persists in a majority of metropolitan areas: 56.5% in 1990, 64.1% in 2000, and 57.7% in 2010. (2) The pattern of employment centers remains stable for most metropolitan areas: the number of centers remained the same for 74.9% of metropolitan areas between 1990 and 2000 and for 85.2% between 2000 and 2010. (3) Compared with monocentric metropolitan areas, polycentric metros are larger and more dense, with higher per-capita incomes and lower poverty rates.     

大城市都市区制造业空间演变特征及其影响因素——以长沙市为例

以长沙都市区为例,基于1978—2020年制造业企业数据,运用标准差椭圆、核密度分析法和空间计量回归模型等方法,探讨长沙都市区制造业空间演变特征及其影响因素。结果表明：1978—2020年,长沙都市区制造业空间扩张规模较大,以“西北—东南”向扩张为主,由中心区扩张转变为郊区集聚重组。其中,劳动密集型制造业以接触性扩散和等级扩散为主,呈“中心集聚、分散布局”的空间特征,资本密集型制造业呈“大范围扩散、小范围集聚”的空间特征,技术密集型制造业受国家级开发区吸引较大,区位指向性强。在制造业空间演变过程中,社会经济、生产成本和政府行为等因素产生显著影响。3类制造业的关键影响因素有所不同：劳动密集型制造业主要受经济基础、生产成本和政府行为的影响;对于技术密集型制造业而言,社会经济、劳动力成本、交通可达性、工业园区数和创新能力作用突出;资本密集型制造业对人口数量、生产成本、交通可达性和工业园区数的依赖性强。所有制造业均明显受到对外开放水平的负向影响。     

Recent Growth and Structural Change in Chinese Cities

This paper examines one aspect of emerging urban industrial systems: the extemalization, or out-sourcing, of business services from the manufacturing sector. Drawing upon Williamson's ( 1975,1990) seminal research on transaction costs economics, the paper demonstrates conceptually that externalization is integrally linked to the vertical disintegration of firms. The empirical portion of the paper uses surveys of small manufacturers located in the Chicago metropolitan region to identify the extent to which five basic business services are externalized. Thereafter, two logit models are developed to evaluate the influence of factors that may contribute to the externalization of basic services. The modeling results indicate that the size of firms and their previous extemalization experience significantly influence the externalization decision.