Continuity and facies heterogeneities of shallow carbonate ramp cycles (Sinemurian,Lower Jurassic,North‐east Spain)

The lateral continuity and facies heterogeneities of metre‐scale cycles in a greenhouse Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) carbonate ramp from the northern Iberian Basin (Spain) was evaluated from extensive field analysis carried out on a well‐exposed 12 km long outcrop. Eleven high‐frequency continuous cycles and their bounding surfaces are traceable laterally through the entire outcrop. However, three of these cycles are found to split laterally into discontinuous cycles of more limited distribution (up to 3 to 5 km of lateral extent). The continuous and discontinuous cycles have a similar field expression in one‐dimensional logs. As a consequence, the number of cycles that can be differentiated is variable along the logged sections (i.e. from 11 to 16). Cycles have variable facies heterogeneities and sedimentary trends depending on the environment of formation: shallowing‐upward and symmetrical cycles occur in protected lagoon–tidal flat areas and in the open‐marine, high‐energy domain. These cycles show significant facies heterogeneities, which were controlled mainly by lateral migration of a mosaic of facies over an irregular topography. Deepening‐upward and aggradational cycles are generated in low‐energy, sub wave‐base, open‐marine areas. Facies are laterally homogeneous, reflecting low potential for carbonate accumulation and inability to fill the created accommodation space in this low‐relief and relatively deep area. Cycle boundaries are generated by stages of rapid accommodation gain, involving the flooding of the carbonate ramp; they are more likely to originate from regional tectonic pulses (related to the extensional tectonics operating in the northern Iberian Basin) rather than greenhouse low‐amplitude eustacy. Discontinuous cycles tend to occur in thickened areas and are interpreted as originating from the infill of wedge‐shaped accommodation space resulting from differential subsidence (i.e. local tectonic pulses). In conclusion, where thickness variations occur in extensional settings lateral continuity of cycles should not be expected. In less well‐exposed, or in one‐dimensional sections and in wells, it would not be possible to distinguish continuous from discontinuous cycles, or to understand such two‐dimensional heterogeneities. Identification of unique cycle‐forming mechanisms or attempting cyclostratigraphic long‐distance correlation of cycles is unrealistic without a detailed analysis of the architecture of cycles in laterally continuous outcrops.     

晚三叠世卡尼期碳酸盐生产危机在东特提斯地区的地质记录

欧洲学者基于阿尔卑斯地区上三叠统卡尼阶地质研究提出卡尼期碳酸盐生产危机(carbonate productivity crisis)或者卡尼期洪水事件(Carnian Pluvial Event)的概念,其主要表现为黑色页岩(或绿色页岩、放射虫硅质岩)覆盖于特提斯范围的碳酸盐岩之上,反映了早、晚卡尼期界面处一次明显的碳酸盐沉积中止事件,之上沉积有厚度逐步增加的硅质碎屑岩;这一地质现象在东特提斯地区(中国)卡尼阶中亦有显现,但远未引起重视。实际野外地质调查与前人文献显示,与古特提斯西部、喜马拉雅等地卡尼阶类似,在中国西南部古特提斯范围内的四川盆地西缘、黔中、滇西北、金沙江沿岸等地,卡尼期碳酸盐岩沉积多被一套灰黑色、深灰色页岩(或深色板岩)及之上的陆源碎屑岩覆盖,显示该时期碳酸盐生产的突然中止和生物礁的突然死亡。卡尼期特提斯范围的构造变动很可能对晚三叠世巨型季风气候造成巨大影响,古太平洋暖流向特提斯地区水汽输入增强,相对干旱的气候向相对潮湿的气候转换,大陆风化速率增加,陆源硅质碎屑输入增多,造成了这一显著的地质事件。     

Facies control of strata-bound ore deposits in carbonate rocks: The F-(Pb-Zn) deposits in the Alpine Triassic of the Alpujárrides,southern Spain

The strata-bound fluorite-(barite-)Pb-Zn ore deposits occurring within the more than 3,000 m thick Alpujárride Carbonate Formation of the Betic Cordillera, southern Spain, are linked to two defined stratigraphic positions (within the Anisian and at the Ladinian-Carnian transition) and to definite sedimentary contexts. These are highly restricted lagoons isolated from the open sea by calcarenitic barriers with noticeable development of algal mats in their inner margins. Preevaporitic deposition conditions are usually recognized. The ore-bearing horizons are located either at the transition from evaporitic to normal marine deposition (as in the case of the Anisian ore-bearing horizon) or at the transition from normal marine to evaporite deposition (as in the case of the uppermost Ladinian to lowermost Carnian ore-bearing horizon). These vertical facies changes correspond also to the transitions from predominantly terrigenous (continental and/or coastal) sedimentation to marine carbonate sedimentation (Anisian ore deposits) and vice versa (upper Ladinian-lower Carnian). It is proposed that the ore deposits in the Triassic Alpujárride Formation are controlled by certain facies associations in the lagoonal environment. The depositional environment determines the hydrologic regimes responsible for early diagenetic formation of fluorite and of the related ore minerals in a way similar to that of early-diagenetic dolomite. This hypothesis is consistent with field and petrographic observations and with available geochemical and itotopic data reported in other works. The present investigation intends to underline the role played by surface-linked ore formation processes, i.e., by ore-forming processes essentially linked to the environments in which sedimentation and early diagenesis takes place, in the genesis of numerous strata-bound Zn-Pb-(F-Ba) ore deposits in carbonate rocks.     

裂缝性碳酸盐岩储层声波时差曲线的波动和增幅分析

研究了裂缝性碳酸盐岩储层声波时差曲线的波动和增幅现象,认为是裂缝对声波的衰减导致到达远接收器的初至波幅度降低,因而形成3～4μs/ft的时差增幅,从而有效解释了声波时差曲线的波动和增幅现象。利用成像资料和常规测井资料相结合,研究增幅发生条件和规律,发现低角度、较大开度的裂缝导致时差增幅。     

The aftermath of the Carnian carbonate platform demise: a basinal perspective (Dolomites, Southern Alps)

In the Dolomites of northernmost Italy the carbonate‐platform growth came to a standstill late in the Early Carnian (Late Triassic). The response to this shutdown of shallow‐water carbonate production in the interplatform basins is largely unknown because erosion has removed most of the soft basinal sediments, giving rise to today's scenic landscape of the Dolomites. Mapping in the central part of the Dolomites and newly available core material has recently revealed a well‐preserved succession of basinal rocks within the Heiligkreuz Hospiz Basin (ital. Ospizio di Santa Croce Basin). In this paper, the regional depositional nature of arrested carbonate platform production is reconstructed by tracing its sedimentological record across the slope and into the basin. The uppermost St. Cassian Formation, the time‐equivalent basinal rocks to the prograding carbonate platforms, is overlain by the Heiligkreuz Formation, whose basal succession was deposited in a restricted and oxygen‐depleted environment immediately post‐dating the platform demise. The succession consists mainly of mudrocks, marlstones, and peloidal packstones, with abundant low‐diversity ostracod and pelecypod fauna and early diagenetic dolomite. C and O isotope values of the basal Heiligkreuz Formation, post‐dating platform demise, average + 2·4 and ? 2·4‰, respectively, and largely overlap the isotopic composition of St. Cassian carbonates. A shift toward slightly lower δ¹³C values in the Heiligkreuz Formation may reflect incorporation of isotopically depleted C released during bacterial sulphate reduction in the Heiligkreuz sediments. Sedimentological, palaeobiological and geochemical indices suggest that near‐normal marine conditions persisted long after the shutdown of shallow water carbonate‐platform growth, although there are clear indications of severely reduced oxygen levels in the restricted Heiligkreuz Hospiz interplatform basin. The Early Carnian platform demise induced a distinct switch in the locus of carbonate production from the shallow‐water platform and slope to the basin floor and a decrease in the availability of dissolved oxygen in the basinal waters. It is inferred that anoxia extended at least temporarily to the top of the carbonate slope, as indicated by the onlap of normal‐marine mounds by dark marlstones of the basal Heiligkreuz Formation.     

Sequence stratigraphy in the upper cretaceous of the Basco-Cantabrian Basin (northern Spain)

The sedimentary cycles of the Cenomanian to Maastrichtian were investigated in the Basco-Cantabrian Basin (BCB) in northern Spain (Provinces of Alava, Vizcaya and Burgos). The depositional area was a distally steepened carbonate ramp which extended from Catalonia northwestwards to the Basque country. The investigated sediments range from calciturbidites and pelagic marls to marl-limestone alternations deposited on a distal carbonate ramp. Shallow marine limestones, marls and intertidal clastics and carbonates were deposited on the proximal part of the carbonate ramp. The establishment of a regional sequence analysis is based on the investigation of seismic profiles, well logs and outcrop sections. Examples of outcrop sections are interpreted in terms of sequence stratigraphy (unconformities of third- and second-order cycles, depositional geometries, systems tracts). The sequence stratigraphic interpretation of outcrop sections is based on facies analysis, interpretation of observed depositional geometries and correlation of unconformities and marine flooding surfaces through the basin. A biostratigraphic framework is established based on ammonites, inoceramids, planktonic and benthic foraminifera. As a result, a regional sequence stratigraphic cycle chart is presented and compared with published global cycle charts. The correlation of the regional cycle chart with published cycle charts is good. In the Cenomanian and Turonian, several sequence boundaries in the BCB are shifted by up to one biozone compared with the global chart. Some type 1 boundaries of the standard chart are only type 2 in the BCB. Important type 1 boundaries in the BCB are: top Geslinianum Zone with a 100 m lowstand wedge at the basis of the sequence (sequence boundary 92.2) ; base Petrocoriense Zone with a 250 m shallowing-upwards lowstand wedge at the basis (sequence boundary 89.2); and within the Syrtale Zone (sequence boundary 85.0).The Campanian-Maastrichtian sequence record is strongly disturbed by local compressive tectonics. Several sequences are recognizable and can be correlated with the global cycle chart. Correlation is hampered by the low biostratigraphic resolution in the western basin part. Subsidence analysis of several sections of the Upper Cretaceous of the BCB and its interpretation in the regional tectonic context leads to a discussion of the causes of the observed cyclicity. A regional eustatic curve is presented for the Upper Cretaceous of the BCB. Stage and substage names were used according Code-Committee (1977). Correspondence to: K.-U. Gräfe     

The start‐up of the Dolomia Principale/Hauptdolomit carbonate platform (Upper Triassic) in the eastern Southern Alps

Wide carbonate platform environments developed on the western passive margin of the Tethys during the Late Triassic, after a major climate change (Carnian Pluvial Episode) that produced a crisis of high‐relief microbial carbonate platforms. The peritidal succession of this epicontinental platform (Dolomia Principale/Hauptdolomit, Dachstein Limestone) is widespread in the Mediterranean region. However, the start‐up stage is not fully understood. The original platform to basin depositional geometries of the system have been studied in the north‐eastern Southern Alps, close to the Italian/Slovenian boundary where they are exceptionally preserved. Sedimentological features have been investigated in detail by measuring several stratigraphic sections cropping out along an ideal depositional profile. The analysis of the facies architecture allowed reconstruction of the palaeoenvironments of the Dolomia Principale platform during its start‐up and early growth stages in the late Carnian. The carbonate platform was characterized by an outer platform area, connected northward to steep slopes facing a relatively deep basin. Southward, the outer platform was connected to inner sheltered environments by a narrow, often emerged shelf crest. Behind this zone, carbonate sedimentation occurred in shallow lagoons and tidal flats, passing inward to a siliciclastic mudflat. The Dolomia Principale platform was initially aggrading and able to keep pace with a concomitant sea‐level rise, and then prograding during the late Carnian. This stratigraphic interval was correlated with the Tuvalian succession of the Dolomites, allowing depiction of the depositional system on a wide scale of hundreds of kilometres. This large‐scale depositional system presents features in common with some Palaeozoic and Mesozoic carbonate build‐ups (for example, the Permian Capitan Reef complex, Anisian Latemar platform), both in terms of architecture and prevailing carbonate producers. A microbial‐dominated carbonate factory is found in the outer platform and upper slope. The recovery of high‐relief microbial carbonate platforms marks the end of the Carnian Pluvial Episode in the Tuvalian of Tethys.     

Early Carnian anoxic event as recorded in the southern Tethyan margin,Tunisia: an overview

Considerable attention has been given to the Carnian (Late Triassic) Pluvial and Reingraben events associated with organic-rich shale accumulation in the Germanic basin, Alps, southern Appenines as well as in northwestern Tethyan margins. Less interest has been shown to the southern Tethyan portion represented by the northern margin of Africa, including Tunisia. Tunisian basins represented by the Tellian domain, Tunisian trough, the ‘Dorsale’, and the North–South Axis (NOSA) belong to the southern Tethyan margin, where northern and central areas record the early Carnian anoxic event within an extensive carbonate platform. This short-lived (~2 million year) period of anoxia ranges within the Aonoides to Austriacum ammonite zones, and corresponds in Tunisia generally to intermediate to shallow water environments marked by organic-rich black limestone, dolomite, and shale. Interestingly, toward the south, the dysaerobic conditions in the Jeffara–southern Dahar basin appear to have prevailed locally also in the early Carnian. Here we review evidence of early Carnian anoxia in Tunisia based on the analysis of more than 17 Triassic sections and wireline logs from several petroleum exploration wells penetrating the black dolomites, limestones, and shales. In addition, biostratigraphic and complete geochemical reviews have been undertaken from published papers and unpublished internal reports to better assess this important and promising hydrocarbon source interval.     

The relationship between carbonate facies, volcanic rocks and plant remains in a late Palaeozoic lacustrine system (San Ignacio Fm, Frontal Cordillera, San Juan province, Argentina)

The San Ignacio Fm, a late Palaeozoic foreland basin succession that crops out in the Frontal Cordillera (Argentinean Andes), contains lacustrine microbial carbonates and volcanic rocks. Modification by extensive pedogenic processes contributed to the massive aspect of the calcareous beds. Most of the volcanic deposits in the San Ignacio Fm consist of pyroclastic rocks and resedimented volcaniclastic deposits. Less frequent lava flows produced during effusive eruptions led to the generation of tabular layers of fine-grained, greenish or grey andesites, trachytes and dacites. Pyroclastic flow deposits correspond mainly to welded ignimbrites made up of former glassy pyroclasts devitrified to microcrystalline groundmass, scarce crystals of euhedral plagioclase, quartz and K-feldspar, opaque minerals, aggregates of fine-grained phyllosilicates and fiammes defining a bedding-parallel foliation generated by welding or diagenetic compaction. Widespread silicified and silica-permineralized plant remains and carbonate mud clasts are found, usually embedded within the ignimbrites. The carbonate sequences are underlain and overlain by volcanic rocks. The carbonate sequence bottoms are mostly gradational, while their tops are usually sharp. The lower part of the carbonate sequences is made up of mud which appear progressively, filling interstices in the top of the underlying volcanic rocks. They gradually become more abundant until they form the whole of the rock fabric. Carbonate on volcanic sandstones and pyroclastic deposits occur, with the nucleation of micritic carbonate and associated production of pyrite. Cyanobacteria, which formed the locus of mineral precipitation, were related with this nucleation. The growth of some of the algal mounds was halted by the progressive accumulation of volcanic ash particles, but in most cases the upper boundary is sharp and suddenly truncated by pyroclastic flows or volcanic avalanches. These pyroclastic flows partially destroyed the carbonate beds and palaeosols. Microbial carbonate clasts, silicified and silica-permineralized tree trunks, log stumps and other plant remains such as small branches and small roots inside pieces of wood (interpreted as fragments of nurse logs) are commonly found embedded within the ignimbrites. The study of the carbonate and volcanic rocks of the San Ignacio Fm allows the authors to propose a facies model that increases our understanding of lacustrine environments that developed in volcanic settings.     

安徽巢湖地区石炭纪-早二叠世碳酸盐岩微相与沉积环境

安徽巢湖凤凰山剖面出露石炭系金陵组(C1j)、和州组(C1h)、黄龙组(C2h)、船山组(C2c)以及下二叠统栖霞组下部臭灰岩段(P1q)等5个含碳酸盐岩地层。本文在野外剖面实测的基础上,对这些碳酸盐岩进行了岩相与微相分析。通过对碳酸盐岩显微薄片的观察分析,共识别出14个微相,分属于干旱近海岸蒸发台地(潮坪)、局限海台地、开阔台地内部浅滩、开阔海台地等4种沉积环境。本文研究结果表明,石炭纪-早二叠世期间,巢湖地区主要为浅海碳酸盐台地环境,期间发生了3次比较大规模的海侵-海退旋回,并间隔有若干次小规模的海平面升降。     

The carbonate—clastic cycles of the East-Alpine Raibl group: Result of third-order sea-level fluctuations in the Carnian

The Carnian Raibl group of the Eastern Alps consists of three 50–100 m thick, alternating carbonate and clastic third-order cycles, each of which can be traced for hundreds of kilometers. Tectono-eustatic sea-level fluctuations of a few tens of metres, spanning a few millions of years, are the driving mechanism of this cyclicity. The carbonate intervals represent restricted marginal marine, tidal and evaporitic environments. The clastic intervals represent inner and outer shelf facies, and are related to the fluviatile “Schilfsandstein” of the Germanic facies belt. In the Raibl group, contrary to other carbonate/clastic depositional settings, relative sea-level lowstands are dominated by carbonate production, and highstands are dominated by clastic deposition.

Each of the three Raibl cycles corresponds to a type-2 sequence, containing shelf margin, transgressive and highstand systems tracts. During sea-level lowstands, deltaic point sources were near the shelf margin, allowing clastics to bypass the carbonate platform. This setting corresponds to a shelf margin systems tract. Transgressive and highstand systems tracts developed during the subsequent sea-level rise, as deltaic clastics were reworked and redistributed over the carbonate platform, and the deltas retrograded to the inner shelf. The highstand systems tracts are capped by a type 2 sequence boundary, which is conformable in the study area. The systems tracts can be further subdivided into shallowing upward subcycles, caused by fourth-order sea-level fluctuations, believed to represent Milankovitch rhythms.

The middle Raibl cycle is consistently thinner, and may represent a shorter termed, third-order sea-level fluctuation. Our data also corroborate a second-order transgressive trend for the Carnian.     

The St George Group (Lower Ordovician) of western Newfoundland: tidal flat island model for carbonate sedimentation in shallow epeiric seas

The St George Group consists of peritidal carbonate rocks deposited on the continental shelf of North America bordering the ancient Iapetus Ocean. These Lower Ordovician rocks are similar to other lower Palaeozoic limestones and dolostones that accumulated in epeiric seas and veneer cratonic areas worldwide. A wide variety of facies in the St George is grouped into seven lithotopes, interpreted to represent supratidal, intertidal and shallow, high- and low-energy subtidal environments. Rapid lateral facies changes can be observed in some field exposures, and demonstrated by correlation of closely spaced sections. The stratigraphic array of these lithotopes, although too irregular to be simplified into shallowing-upward cycles, suggests that they were deposited as small tidal flat islands and banks. Shallow subtidal areas around islands generated sediment and permitted tidal exchange. Tidal flat islands were somewhat variable in character at any one time, and evolved with changing regional hydrographic conditions. The St George rocks suggest an alternative theory of carbonate sedimentation in large, shallow epeiric seas, namely as small islands and banks built by processes that operated in a tidal regime. Furthermore, this island model provides a framework for a mechanism of cyclic carbonate sedimentation, by which small-scale, peritidal cycles represent tidal flat islands that accreted vertically and migrated laterally as local sediment supply from neighbouring subtidal areas waxed and waned during relatively constant subsidence.     

Facies interfingering and synsedimentary tectonics on late Ladinian–early Carnian carbonate platforms (Dolomites, Italy)

A stratigraphic model for carbonate platform evolution in the Dolomites during the late Ladinian-early Carnian is presented. New light on pre-Raibl growth of individual carbonate platforms of the western Dolomites was shed by biostratigraphic data combined with a revised lithostratigraphy. At the Schlern, Langkofel and Sella, the carbonate factory (Upper Schlern Dolomite) remained productive into the lowermost Carnian (Cordevolian = Aon Zone), and caused a levelling-out of the former steep platform-to-basin relief. In the eastern Dolomites, platforms were producing till basal Julian 2 (Austriacum Zone). At the Sella and Langkofel, the sedimentation pattern after deposition of the Upper Schlern Dolomite was strongly influenced by synsedimentary tectonics. A first phase of extensional tectonics led to local fissures, block-tilting, graben structures and breccia deposits. Composition and fabric of the reworked clasts argue for local-source sediments and short transport distances. The extensional structures are sealed by sediments of Lower Carnian age. Two facies belts (Schlernplateau beds and Dürrenstein Dolomite), which interfinger at the western side of the Sella, reflect the shallow marine environment with terrigenous-volcanoclastic input in the western Dolomites. A second generation of breccias at the Sella documents local fracturing of the Dürrenstein and Upper Schlern Dolomite. Depositional environments across the western and eastern Dolomites were largely dependent on differential subsidence. The sediments of early Carnian age on top of the Schlern platform are a few metres thick only, whereas, in the eastern Dolomite, up to 400-m-thick carbonate sediments ('Richthofen reef' and Settsass platform) were deposited. The most incomplete stratigraphic record is present at the Mendel platform in the west, where Ladinian volcanics are unconformably overlain by late Carnian 'Raibl beds'. The increase in sediment thickness towards the eastern Dolomites becomes partly visible at the eastern flank of the Sella platform. Differential subsidence across western and eastern Dolomites caused local fracturing of platform sediments. Synsedimentary extensional tectonics was a significant controlling factor to the lithofacies and thickness variations of early Carnian platform sediments in the Dolomites.     

晚三叠世卡尼期黑色页岩事件在龙门山地区的沉积学和古生物学响应

龙门山前缘地区卡尼阶-诺利阶马鞍塘组中部发育一套薄-中层状黑灰色、灰黑色、黑色（含介壳）钙质泥（页）岩,在该套岩石中瓣鳃类生物多见,原生二价金属硫化物（黄铁矿）发育,水平层理发育,显示着低能环境贫氧条件的典型特征。与马鞍塘组中部黑灰色、灰黑色钙质泥（页）岩相当层位的卡尼期晚期沉积,在松潘-甘孜地区、昌都地区、可可西里地区均可见到,多显示为黑色、灰黑色色调,岩性为泥（页）岩或粉砂质板岩、钙质板岩,反映了一次黑色页岩地质事件在中国西部古特提斯东部地区产生了大范围的影响。全球对比表明,该套深色泥（页）岩在西特提斯、印度喜玛拉雅等地均有分布,覆盖在卡尼期早期碳酸盐沉积之上。据此,作者认为晚三叠世卡尼期特提斯范围的黑色页岩事件,很有可能与卡尼期全球性的碳酸盐生产危机有关,马鞍塘组中部发育的深色泥（页）岩即是此次事件在扬子地台西缘的反映。根据对川西北地区绵竹汉旺、安县雎水、江油马鞍塘等剖面的实际考察与研究,认为代表缺氧事件沉积的马鞍塘组中部黑灰色泥（页）岩之下为卡尼阶灰岩段（即汉旺组中下部灰岩段,主要为鲕粒灰岩、海绵礁灰岩等）,之上为诺利阶灰色粉、细砂岩夹灰岩、泥岩段（相当于石元组）。黑灰色钙质泥（页）岩不仅是该组岩性变化的转折点,亦是古生物、古生态急剧变化的转折点。在马鞍塘组下部广泛可见的六射海绵、海百合、苔藓虫、珊瑚等海相化石在马鞍塘组中上部地层（上卡尼阶至诺利阶底部）中很少看到,仅见丰富的瓣鳃类、菊石、腕足类等有壳类动物化石。
     

Calculation of fracture parameters and their effect on porosity and permeability using image logs and petrophysical data in carbonate Asmari reservoir,SW Iran

Evaluation of fractures and their parameters, such as aperture and density, is necessary in the optimization of oil production and field development. The purpose of this study is the calculation of fracture parameters in the Asmari reservoir using two electrical image logs (FMI, EMI), and the determination of fracture parameters’ effect on the porosity and permeability using thin sections and velocity deviation log (VDL). The results indicate that production in the Asmari reservoir is a combination of fractures and rock matrix. Fracture aperture (VAH) and fracture porosity (VPA) are only measurable with core and image logs directly. However, regarding core limitations, the image log has been recognized as the best method for fracture parameter determination due to their high resolution (2.5 mm). In this study, VDL log and thin sections have been used as auxiliary methods which may be available in all wells. The VDL log provides a tool to obtain downhole information about the predominant pore type in carbonates. Results indicate that between fracture parameters, VAH is considered as the most important parameter for determining permeability. For well No. 3, VAH ranges from minimum 51 × 10^?5 mm to maximum 0. 047 mm and VPA changes from min 10^?5% to maximum 0.02056%. For well No. 6, VAH varies from 5 × 10^?4 to 0.0695 mm and VPA varies from 10^?5 to 0.015%. Therefore, due to high fracture density and fracture aperture, it seems that most of effective porosity originates from fractures especially in well No. 3. However, VDL for well No. 6 indicates that intercrystalline and vuggy porosity are the dominant porosity. This result may be an indication for fracture set diversity in the two studied wells. While in well No. 3, they related to the folding and active faults, in well No. 6 they are only of folding type. Furthermore, results indicate the high capability for both of EMI and FMI image logs for calculation of fracture and vug parameters in the carbonate reservoirs.     

Porosity distribution in cyclic dolomites of the Lower Qiulitag Group (Upper Cambrian) in northwestern Tarim Basin,China

Increasing interests in hydrocarbon resources at depths have drawn greater attentions to the deeply-buried carbonate reservoirs in the Tarim Basin in China. In this study, the cyclic dolomite rocks of Upper Cambrian Lower Qiulitag Group from four outcrop sections in northwestern Tarim Basin were selected to investigate and evaluate the petrophysical properties in relation to depositional facies and cyclicity. The Lower Qiulitag Group includes ten lithofacies, which were deposited in intermediate to shallow subtidal, restricted shallow subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal environments on a carbonate ramp system. These lithofacies are vertically stacked into repeated shallowing-upward, meter-scale cycles which are further grouped into six third-order depositional sequences (Sq1 to Sq6). There are variable types of pore spaces in the Lower Qiulitag Group dolomite rocks, including interparticle, intraparticle, and fenestral pores of primary origin, inter crystal, and vuggy pores of late diagenetic modification. The porosity in the dolomites is generally facies-selective as that the microbially-originated thrombolites and stromatolites generally yield a relatively high porosity. In contrast, the high-energy ooidal grainstones generally have very low porosity. In this case, the microbialite-based peritidal cycles and peritidal cycle-dominated highstand (or regressive) successions have relatively high volumes of pore spaces, although highly fluctuating (or vertical inhomogeneous). Accordingly, the grainstone-based subtidal cycles and subtidal cycle-dominated transgressive successions generally yield extremely low porosity. This scenario indicates that porosity development and preservation in the thick dolomite successions are primarily controlled by depositional facies which were influenced by sea-level fluctuations of different orders and later diagenetic overprinting.     

Stratiforme und diskordante Zink-Blei-Anomalien im erzhöffigen Oberen Wettersteinkalk (alpine Mitteltrias)

939 samples collected from 18 standard profiles of the ore bearing Upper Ladinian "Wettersteinkalk" and the corresponding "Partnachschichten" and "Arlbergschichten" were analysed with aid of AAS for Ca, Mg, Zn, Pb (Sr, Fe, Mn). Additional the HCl-insoluble was detected. The zinc and lead distributions in different facies types (i. e. reef, lagunal, reef-margin and basin facies) were investigated. Most of the samples show "normal" minor-element abundances (mean 24 ppm Zn, 1, 5 ppm Pb). Approaching the "Raibler Schichten" (Carnian) the lagunal facies contains stratiform zinc and lead anomalies (Zn>150 ppm, Pb>15 ppm). This can be explained by increasing heavy metal concentrations during sedimentation and early diagenesis. Furthermore zinc and lead halos in the carbonate host rocks were investigated. The zinc dispersion is mainly related to "collapse breccias" and metasomatic dolomites in the margins of the major ore bodies, and extends a maximum distance of about 10–20 m.     

Origin and deformation of intra-salt sulphate layers: an example from the Dutch Zechstein (Late Permian)

From salt mine galleries and well data it is known that thick rock salt layers can contain anhydrite and carbonate layers with thicknesses on the millimetre to tens of metre scale. The relatively thick Zechstein 3 anhydrite–carbonate layer in the northern Netherlands has been studied previously using 3-D seismic data. Observations from geophysical well logs in this study reveal the presence of thin sulphate layers on the sub-seismic scale imbedded in the Zechstein 2 (Z2) salt. Core samples, thin sections, seismic data and geochemical measurements were used to determine the mineralogy and origin of one of these Z2 sulphate layers. Bromine analyses show that they mark a freshening event in the Z2 salt, which can be correlated over large distances in the northern Netherlands. Their core-calibrated log signature indicates that the Z2 sulphate layers consist either of pure anhydrite or of anhydrite and polyhalite. The mineralogy and thickness of the sulphate layers are interpreted to vary between synsedimentary morphologic lows (thin anhydrite–polyhalite couplets) and highs (thicker anhydrite layers). Such a combination of core observations and well log analysis is a powerful tool to detect lateral trends in evaporite mineralogy and to reconstruct the environmental setting of their formation. Salt internal geometries can further be used to distinguish between different deformation mechanisms. In our study area, the distribution of sulphate layers within the Z2 salt indicates that subjacent salt dissolution was not the dominant process leading to salt-related deformation.     

新疆塔河油田下奥陶统碳酸盐岩储层成因类型与评价

塔河油田油气主要产自下奥陶统碳酸盐岩地层中，储渗空间和储层类型研究对油田的勘探开发有重要意义。笔者通过岩芯及铸体薄片的详细观察，结合钻井资料和测井曲线，对下奥陶统碳酸盐岩的储渗空间特征进行了成因类型划分，并在储渗空间发育分布状况、物性和油气测试资料分析的基础上，对各成因类型储层的储集性进行了评价。研究表明，大型洞穴发育比较普遍，相应的洞穴型储层是区内下奥陶统最主要的储层类型，是储集性能好、油气高产的首要目标，其次是构造裂隙型储层。